This document is an excerpt from the EUR-Lex website
Document 52012SC0375
COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT Vocational education and training for better skills, growth and jobs Accompanying the document Communication from the Commission Rethinking Education: Investing in skills for better socio-economic outcomes
COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT Vocational education and training for better skills, growth and jobs Accompanying the document Communication from the Commission Rethinking Education: Investing in skills for better socio-economic outcomes
COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT Vocational education and training for better skills, growth and jobs Accompanying the document Communication from the Commission Rethinking Education: Investing in skills for better socio-economic outcomes
/* SWD/2012/0375 final */
COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT Vocational education and training for better skills, growth and jobs Accompanying the document Communication from the Commission Rethinking Education: Investing in skills for better socio-economic outcomes /* SWD/2012/0375 final */
TABLE
OF CONTENT Executive summary. 1 1. Vocational
education and training as an engine of innovation and growth. 5 2. Financial
incentives for continuing vocational education and training. 10 2.1. Evidence
on the effectiveness of incentives and funding mechanisms for CVET. 12 2.2. Financial
incentives for individuals to stimulate participation in CVET. 13 2.3. Financial
incentives for employers to stimulate supply of CVET. 19 3. State
of play of VET systems in the EU in view of developing excellence. 23 3.1..... VET attractiveness in the EU countries. 24 3.2. State
of play of work-based learning and cooperation between VET institutions and
enterprises 26 3.3. Development
of partnerships for creativity and innovation and effective use of innovative
technology in VET 32 4. Excellence
in VET: key points and lessons from practice. 37 4.1. Successful
VET strategies require a strategic approach to excellence. 40 4.2. Designing
excellence in VET systems: lessons from practice. 40 4.3. Delivering
VET excellence: connecting VET providers and engaging enterprises. 48 Annex - VET at levels higher than upper
secondary programmes. 54
Executive
summary
The
“Rethinking Education” Communication supports the Member States by identifying
a range of issues relevant for improving the efficiency of education and training
systems. This Staff Working Document highlights the evidence base for the
policy proposals outlined in the “Rethinking Education” Communication on
vocational education and training (VET) and vocational skills. The Bruges Communiqué of
December 2010[1], which defines the European
VET strategy up to 2020, calls for an active policy to enhance the potential of
VET to support smart and sustainable growth, and to turn VET across the EU into
a highly attractive learning choice. This document responds to this
demand, helping Member States and other stakeholders put into practice the reforms needed to exploit the
potential of VET for growth. Its findings are based on analyses, coordinated by
the Commission in cooperation with Member States, of best policy practice
across the EU and beyond, and on comparative data and current research. It summarises key results of
exploratory work by the Commission involving experts representing key VET
stakeholders[2]. It highlights the
unexploited potential of VET to support economic development, notably by better
integrating VET in economic growth strategies at local, regional
and national levels. Furthermore it identifies for policy makers concrete steps
which can facilitate this kind of development. It also attributes specific
attention to issues of sustainable development, which will be one of the key
drivers of change to be reflected in VET policies and practices. The performance
and outcomes of Vocational education and training systems vary significantly
between Member States… Recent Cedefop
data shows that, at the medium level, European VET graduates are more
successful than candidates from general education in finding employment (see
Figure 1). This applies in particular to graduates from VET programmes with
strong workplace orientation. The same data also shows that VET candidates are
better paid than candidates from general education, even if this decreases over
time[3].
However, enrolments[4], attractiveness
and quality of VET vary significantly across countries as further analysed in
chapter 3. Figure 1 – Employment rates for medium
level graduates aged 20-34 and no longer in education by orientation (% of
corresponding population), 2009 Source:
Cedefop' s calculations based on Eurostat, EU LFS 2009 AHM Notes: Medium level graduates refers to individuals whose highest
level of education corresponds to a qualification at ISCED level 3 or 4
(excluding 3c short qualification) …but the EU and the Member States have adopted a European strategy for the modernisation of vocational
education and training Work on modernising VET does
not start from scratch. The development of vocational training has been a
subject of enhanced political cooperation at European level during the past
decade. In December 2010, the Member States, the European level social partners
and the Commission adopted together the Bruges Communiqué, which defines an
ambitious agenda for modernising vocational education and training systems in
Europe, so that VET directly contributes to the objectives of the Europe 2020
strategy[5].
It identifies key challenges and proposes actions both at national and European
levels so as to advance towards a seamless European training area: ·
Attractive
and inclusive VET - with highly qualified teachers and trainers, innovative learning
methods, high-quality infrastructure and facilities, a high labour market
relevance, and pathways to further education and training; ·
High
quality initial VET (IVET) which enables learners to acquire specific
vocational skills combined with key competences and which learners, parents and
society at large recognise (again)as an appealing option, of the same value as
general education. IVET should equip learners with both key competences and
specific vocational skills; ·
Work-based
learning is included in all initial VET courses, ensuring that young people
have the knowledge, skills and competences they need for a successful first
step into the labour market. Companies are engaged as training providers,
together with VET schools or other education/training institutes; ·
Easily
accessible and career-oriented continuing VET for all employees, irrespective
of their educational background, employers, independent entrepreneurs and
unemployed people, which facilitates both competence development and career
changes; ·
Improve
permeability between the different education and training subsystems (school
education, VET, higher education, adult education) and cater for the validation
of non-formal and informal learning, including competences acquired in the work
place; ·
A European
education and training area, with transparent qualifications systems which
enable the transfer and accumulation of learning outcomes, as well as the
recognition of qualifications and competences, and which facilitate
transnational mobility; ·
Substantially
increased opportunities for transnational mobility of VET students and VET
professionals; ·
Easily
accessible and high-quality lifelong information, guidance and counselling
services, which form a coherent network and which enable European citizens to
take sound decisions and to manage their learning and professional careers
beyond traditional gender profiles. The EU strategy for VET must
be implemented as a core element of the Union's growth agenda Targeted investment and
reforms in vocational education and training are necessary to boost innovation
and competiveness. Member States should engage in reforms promoting excellence
in VET and better connecting VET to local and regional economic strategies, in
particular in the context of research and innovation strategies for smart
specialisation linked to cohesion policy support. New types of strategic
partnerships between VET providers, companies, other economic actors, social
partners and authorities are crucial in this respect. Efforts towards
VET excellence described in this document aim at both: -
Establishing
VET excellence as a common goal and reference point for all VET systems in Europe; -
Bridging
the gap between EU countries as regards the performance, quality and impact of
VET, and its outcomes in term of more and better skills. Furthermore, VET
systems are more closely linked to labour markets than other sectors of
education and training systems. Yet the potential of work-based learning, and
in particular apprenticeships, to tackle youth employment also remains to be
fully exploited in many countries. While unemployment is caused by many
factors, part of the solution can be found in high quality vocational education
and training (VET) systems in which a strong element of work-based learning facilitates
young people's transition to work. This is confirmed by the recent Cedefop
study on labour market outcomes of VET. Countries with strong and attractive
VET systems, and notably those with well-established apprenticeship systems,
tend overall to perform better in terms of youth employment. The political
commitment to promote apprenticeships is there. The European Council in its
January 2012 informal meeting called on Member States to substantially increase
the number of apprenticeships and traineeships. Member States and social
partners committed themselves in the Bruges Communiqué to the objective of
including work-based learning in all initial VET courses. The challenge
remaining in many countries is to identify, adapt and adopt the best measures
to put these commitments into practice. The Commission's proposals to
exploit the potential of work-based learning are further developed in the
forthcoming Commission Communication on Youth Employment. Effective strategies for
improving VET need to be realistic in their ambitions and tailored to each
country's situation … Realistic reform strategies
have to reflect the different starting points of Member States, their national
traditions and economic realities. Well-developed VET systems may face the challenge
of ensuring that VET is not a dead-end and, therefore, have to work on pathways
that link VET and higher education. On the other hand, more
rudimental VET systems will have to invest of time, work and money to achieve
the objective of VET excellence: for them a "big bang" is not an
option at hand; they may first have to set up the necessary infrastructure and
facilities, ensure the availability of qualified teachers, accomplish a
suitable legal framework, build up institutions and forge a good cooperation
and partnership with business and social partners. A realistic strategy will
sequence the necessary reforms and set out a reasonable timeline. To establish
VET as a means to achieve recognised and promising careers - in the absence of
long-standing traditions and a tried-and-tested framework - takes time. … and the potential of
work-based learning to deliver skills for employment deserves special attention The value of work-based
learning – and notably of apprenticeships or "dual training" systems -
in facilitating youth employment and increasing economic competitiveness is
clearly recognised. Countries with strong and attractive VET systems, and
notably those with well-established apprenticeship systems, tend to perform
better in terms of youth employment. Despite this, the supply of
apprenticeship and traineeship places in the EU remains under-developed. The
picture varies greatly by country. Efforts are needed to invest in expanding
the offer of apprenticeships and traineeships in countries where opportunities
for this type of learning remain very limited. The political commitment is
there. The country specific recommendations adopted in July 2012 related to
workforce skills and competences and VET clearly highlight the need for reforms
to better connect VET and labour markets, strengthen the relevance of VET and
support a better transition from VET to work. Countries can tackle this challenge
in different ways, by investing in work-based learning which is tailored to
their situation. Alternance
schemes or apprenticeships are typically known in Austria and Germany as the "dual system". These are based on the integration of companies
as training providers together with VET schools or other education/training
institutes. In these programmes, learners spend a significant time on training
in companies. In parallel, in "alternating" periods, they acquire
general and occupation-related knowledge and key competences in VET schools or
other education/training institutes. This model typically shows strong results
in terms of successful transitions to the labour market. Another model is school-based
VET which includes on the job training periods in companies, typically
covering internships, work placements or traineeships that are incorporated in VET
programmes leading to formal qualifications. Finally, work-based learning can
be integrated in a school-based programme, through on-site labs,
workshops, kitchens, restaurants, junior or practice firms, simulations or real
business/industry project assignments which aim to create a "real
life" work environment. Given the diversity of
experiences and models, the potential for mutual learning is clearly high. Some
Member States are already engaged in peer learning activities, and the
Commission is ready to support further collaboration of this type to fully
exploit the potential of work-based learning to support employability. Effective VET strategies require
continued investments and fair burden sharing Bringing reform efforts to
fruition also requires substantial investments, which will certainly be seen as
difficult to fund in times of tight public finance. Delaying the modernisation
and improvement of VET means to relinquish the growth and innovation potential
that is inherent in better VET systems. The lower the development
level of a county's VET system, the bigger the overall funding needs will be.
Interventions of EU structural funds can help to meet these funding needs. At
national level, the strategy to improve VET should be reflected in a country's budgetary
policy, as part of smart fiscal consolidation. In the area of continuing
vocational education and training, the situation is even more complex: it is
difficult to strike the balance between the interests and motivation of
employees and employers respectively, as it is necessary to share the potential
benefits and the financial burden of training measures in a way that creates
positive incentives for both sides. There structural
under-investment in the skills of adult workers. The stagnating share of adults
taking part in lifelong learning activities attests of it. And this insight is
a cause of concern in view of the global, knowledge-based economy that is
propelling constant technological change. It might only be possible to overcome
this stalemate by agreeing, in a broader framework, on the conditions for
taking part in and for shouldering the financial burden of CVET activities.
1. Vocational education and training as an engine of innovation and
growth
The boundaries of vocational education
and training are shifting: an unexploited potential to support growth The potential of vocational
training to support or even drive competitiveness, innovation and growth
policies has largely been neglected in education and training policies, in
particular when compared with the role attributed to the higher education
sector. This neglect is harmful as it underestimates the crucial importance of
high volume and high quality VET for retaining and developing the economy.
Countries like Austria, Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands exemplify the
importance of combined strategies where VET and higher education are seen as
complementary and where one cannot be developed without the support of the
other. Traditionally conceived as
preparing people for technical, manual or crafts occupations, the boundaries of
VET have been shifting for quite some time: vocational qualifications are
spreading to higher levels of education and training. This reflects the need
for vocational skills and competences at increasingly advanced levels, but is
also reflecting the need to combine academic and professional preparation.[6]
Young people participating in initial vocational training (IVET) need to
develop relevant technical skills but also to learn to cope with change,
complexity and the need for continuous skills development. However given
demographic tendencies, it is also crucial that adults in working life
constantly update, upgrade and or reorient their skills and competences.
Continuing vocational training (CVET) is gaining strategic importance through
equipping older workers with skills necessary for changing jobs as well as for
entrepreneurship. The challenge of better
exploiting the potential of VET for growth is not unique to Europe. All our
major international competitors are currently addressing the same issues. For
this reason, the document draws not only upon the experience of the Member
States, but refers also to internationally recognised good examples. Developed and imagined economies: investment in VET to
support growth and productivity -In
2012 the US president Barack Obama committed 8 billion dollars for a period of
three years to boost partnerships between community colleges and regional
employers with the aim of training 2 million workers for careers in high-growth
industries such as advanced manufacturing and health care.[7] -Australia emphasises the role VET in driving economic growth and social inclusion. The
current National Skills and Workforce Development Agreement aims for a VET
system which delivers a productive and highly skilled workforce and sets the
target of doubling the number of people who hold higher level (VET)
qualifications.[8] -China’s national medium and long term talent development plan 2010-2020 sets out an
ambitious programme for VET which is seen as a major channel to boost economic
growth[9].
Support shall be made available for the development of excellent VET schools
and colleges[10]. EU industry has radically
changed over the last 10-15 years. There has been a massive increase in
manufacturing labour productivity by some 46% between 1995 and 2007, compared
with economy-wide productivity growth of less than 20% over the same period.
This performance has been achieved through process and product innovation,
outsourcing of non-core manufacturing business activities (e.g. logistics,
facility management, ICT) and the increasing use of a better qualified
workforce.
However, the rate of productivity growth in the last fifteen years in Europe
lags behind that in the US. This is in particular visible when examining not
just labour productivity (GDP per hours worked) but also multifactor
productivity (level of output compared to all inputs – labour as well as
capital)[11],
which is a better indicator of the use of technology and innovation in
production. An effective VET system can
facilitate innovation and economic restructuring … Skills are a key driver for
growth, employment and competitiveness: they lay the foundation for
productivity and innovation. Investment in training is also an investment in
innovation, since much technical change results from incremental innovatons by
skills workers and engineers on the factory floor.[12] Traditionally
innovation is seen as a result of R&D activities carried out by highly
qualified staff and thus a domain of higher education rather than VET. However,
there are at least three reasons why high quality vocational education and
training is relevant to supporting innovation: ·
technological
and process innovations can be absorbed by businesses provided that employees
at all levels of the production chain have the required skills; ·
given that
the majority of European companies (including small enterprises) are involved
in global value chains, constant innovation and efficiency are a must to ensure
competitiveness in a global context. That has implications for skills and work
organisation practices. ·
Innovation
cannot be limited to high tech industries – it also takes place in low-tech
industries which account for a large share of employment in Europe. Firms in
low-tech industries innovate in an incremental way by further developing their
products, taking these products to new markets or improving production and
delivery processes. In doing so they build on the practical knowledge
within the firm which arises from ‘learning by doing’ or ‘learning by
using and interacting[13]
which is not a prerogative of a specific category of employees. Vocational education and
training can play a key role in the processes of economic restructuring. The
analysis of case studies in specific clusters (medical technologies; textiles;
advanced engineering; finance; and renewable energy) made by Cedefop[14]
showed that strategic investments in skills – which pay due account to the role
of VET – have to potential to create dynamic skills eco-systems which support economic
development and innovation: ·
the supply
of highly skilled labour (including through VET) is a critically important
factor in the growth and competiveness of regional and/or industrial clusters; ·
Firms,
governments and workers undertake considerable efforts to supply the skills
needed for high quality production, the efficiency of operations, and for
innovation meaning that both public agencies and private firms are engaged in
the supply of knowledge which firms within the cluster require for the networks
to flourish; ·
training
investments are pivotal for restructuring. Human capital investments are not
restricted to supporting the expansion of growth industries. In declining
industries, such as textiles or shipbuilding, available skills are adapted and
transformed into new occupations to establish the knowledge base for more
productive activities. Training, therefore, is the key investment for the
reallocation of labour into the growth industries; ·
the high
degree of innovation observed in all the case studies would not have been
achievable without the long-term accumulation of professional knowledge in
local labour markets; and training systems play a pivotal role in organising
this knowledge transfer over time; ·
there is a
high degree of cooperation among companies within clusters, which aids sharing
of knowledge for the benefit, in the first instance, of the production process; ·
production
structures are heavily influenced by the provision of skills in local labour
markets. Skill provision allows for the development of high-value production
allied to relatively good working conditions and points to the key role of
human capital investment which is at the very beginning of economic
restructuring and development. … promote smart growth… Some regions in the world have
adopted diversified development strategies to encourage economic growth by
including education and training providers. In the United States, knowledge is
perceived as the key asset in economic development: for instance, in some
States the community college system offers targeted workforce development
measures, including non-credit courses which can be quickly developed and
tailored to the needs of companies.[15]
The aim is to stimulate job creation and growth by making the commitment to
provide companies with a skilled local workforce from day one. As a result,
local economic development resources are prioritised for these companies. VET and smart growth in practice: Sweden, The Netherlands In
Sweden the Centres for Advanced VET as well as the Centre of Vocational
Excellence can be seen as attempts to situate VET as a central player in smart
growth. Both in Sweden and the Netherlands, partnerships not only rely on
indirect representation through employer or social partner organisations, but
are based on direct involvement with enterprises. Central to the partnerships
are opportunities to develop innovative teaching and learning processes based
on work based learning models, where students get genuine opportunities to
learn through and from tackling complex and authentic challenges. In
the Netherlands, VET excellence centres typically comprise both vertical and
horizontal cooperation with other VET institutions, universities, and research
and business organisations and businesses, mirroring the characteristics of the
regional innovation system. In
Karlstad, Sweden, the ‘Paper Province’ develops cooperation between pulp and
paper technology businesses in Värmland, northern Dalsland and the county of Örebro in central Sweden. Around 200 companies with approximately 12.000 employees
are active in the sector. Karlstad Technology Centre plays an important role in
ensuring a qualified workforce for the industry. The Technology Centre offers
tailored work force development programmes as well as a two year vocational
programme. It is developed in close cooperation with industry. Students
undertake a placement scheme, which aims to train the students in using theory
to solve complex practice based problems and as the foundation for building
skills conducive to practice based innovation. Excellence centred network to boost skills supply – North Carolina (USA) The
state of North Carolina in US has been internationally recognised for its
proactive use of community colleges as strategic partners in economic development.
These colleges provide both post-secondary vocational qualifications as well as
tailor made continuing training to companies. In the early 2000s North Carolina identified bio-technology as one of the sectors with the biggest potential
for growth and jobs. An analysis showed that 2/3 of possible new jobs would
require specific qualifications below bachelor level. To seize the opportunity
the state launched a specific initiative to strengthen the supply capacity of
the community college system. Seven centres of bio excellence were created in
the state, linked to the network of 58 community colleges. This approach has
dramatically increased the capacity – both quantitatively and qualitatively -
of the community college and has directly benefited the development of the
bio-technology industry in North Carolina. The employment in the sector grew
from 34 500 jobs in 2003 to 58 000 in the year 2009, including a substantial
amount of jobs for people with medium level qualifications below bachelor’s
degree.[16]In
Europe, Northern Ireland has drawn lessons directly from the experience of North Carolina and applied them within the "Assured Skills" programme.[17] …and
support the transition towards the green economy The
transformation brought about by greening economies will accelerate structural
changes between sectors and the process of restructuring within many sectors,
calling for measures to enable the adaptation of workers in existing and
emerging economic activities as well as retraining of displaced workers from
shrinking sectors. Sectoral and
occupational changes brought about by greening economies call for a greater
degree of policy coherence and a better understanding of the interactions
between education, VET, labour market and low carbon and energy efficiency
policies. Yet, a review of national practices reveals that the coordination
between green policies and skill policies ranges from comprehensive and
well-targeted to fragmented, ad hoc or virtually non-existent[18]. In
Denmark, Germany and France for instance, there are well-established
institutional frameworks for reflecting changes in skills needs in education
and training responses. These frameworks combine quantitative forecasting,
qualitative needs assessments and formal and informal dialogue with education
and training providers. For example, the approaches adopted in France and
Germany in this respect tend to be ‘integrated’ ones - adjusting or refining
vocational training curricula, rather than creating specialised green
occupations. Examples of VET initiatives
based around new and emerging sectors of economic activity have been observed
in Austria. Here, national and local governments have launched a
joint initiative, called the Environmental Technology Masterplan (Masterplan
Umwelttechnologie, MUT). This brings together policymakers, business and
relevant research institutions to improve the competitiveness of the industry.
A key component of this plan is the consideration of innovative and
needs-related vocational training in the green technology sector.[19]
Germany: initiative to adapt IVET
and CVET to the requirements of the green economy The Federal Government of Germany is currently acting upon the transition to the green economy by promoting
sustainability and environmental protection as a transversal, overarching goal
of VET. Rather than creating new, specific green occupations, many occupations
and training curricula have been adjusted and refined to take account of the
skills needs of increasingly green aspects of mainstream industry and business,
as well as eco-industries. The skills response has followed an integrated
approach, rather than focusing on specialised occupations, to guarantee
flexible use of skilled workers and better job opportunities. The approach favoured so far for the VET systems
is “topping-up” competences to enhance the skills already possessed by the
workforce, to collectively meet the demands of existing jobs requiring green
skills or jobs that need retraining. This topping-up is most likely to be
characterised by additional training to familiarise workers with new concepts
and practices that will enable them to operate in low-carbon industries.
Relevant developments in Germany’s initial training include the creation of 82
occupations and the modernisation of 219 occupations; only a small number of
dual apprenticeship training schemes have been established related to green
occupations. Source: Thiele, P.
(2011).
2. Financial incentives for continuing vocational education and
training
The importance of continuing
vocational education and training (CVET) is rising hand in hand with ageing
population and changes in technology and work processes. An efficient and
effective system of CVET is contributing to VET excellence by making sure that
people continually acquire and update the skills needed by the labour market. In order for CVET to be
efficient and effective, the whole CVET system needs to be built taking into
consideration the objectives that are to be reached. For example, as the
participation in CVET of older and less qualified persons is often lower, this
could be a main priority for support measures. Much CVET takes place in
companies, but this training is targeted mainly at those who are already in
employment, who have high qualifications levels and who are relatively young.
In order for CVET to reach also other target groups, it is important that also
other stakeholders, such as Social Partners, participate in the design and
financing of CVET. One of the objectives
expressed through the Bruges Communiqué is to increase participation in CVET
through an appropriate framework of incentives, rights and obligations should
support the company investment in CVET. All the elements linked with the
design, delivery and financing of CVET should support one another, not act in isolation.
However, it seems that knowledge on financing mechanisms for CVET is relatively
scarce. This is why this question merits a closer look. A well-functioning support
system for CVET is extremely important if participation is to be increased. At
the moment, most European countries are still far from reaching the EU target
of 15 % participation in adult learning (see Commission Staff Working
Document "Rethinking Education: Country analysis"). Both for individuals and for
companies, costs of training is the main obstacle for training[20]. Member
States have implemented a variety of approaches, and while impacts on returns
are mixed or unclear[21],
recent analyses may help improving these and increasing their impact on
targeted groups. However, this is an area which requires rigorous research at
national level. In order to increase the
participation in CVET, much is going on in Member States. In addition to
measures in place already at the time of the adoption of the Bruges Communiqué,
countries are introducing measures or strategies that aim at increasing the
participation. The results of the latest
Continuing Vocational Training Survey show a slight increase in both training
in enterprises and a slightly more marked increase in employee participation in
training as compared to 2005. Today around two third of European enterprises
train their personnel. [22]
However, the situation varies greatly between countries, in particular for the
level of the investments that companies make in training their personnel. In order to further increase
training demand and supply, public support is necessary. This chapter discusses
the main mechanisms that are used to (co-)finance CVET.
2.1. Evidence on the effectiveness of
incentives and funding mechanisms for CVET
Several financing and
regulatory mechanisms, such as levy-based schemes (training funds), tax
incentives, vouchers/individual learning accounts, (low-cots) loans, training
leave and payback clauses have been set up to stimulate the demand for
continuing learning, which can be distinguished between those targeting
individuals and those directed to enterprises. Most of these mechanisms are at
least partly financed by governments; most of them also require a contribution
from employer or employees. This chapter which concentrates rather on the
co-financing instruments which require sharing of responsibilities. The various financing
mechanisms are known to have advantages, such as stimulating participation in
learning (as shown by the evaluation of tax incentives in the Netherlands),
increase private investment (e.g. training funds) and they can strengthen
social dialogue (e.g. sectoral training funds in Italy), to mention but a few.
However, despite these advantages, none of the financing mechanisms is free of
potential drawbacks, which should be taken into account in design and
implementation. The latter mainly include deadweight losses and heavy
administrative burden. Comprehensive evaluations of financing mechanisms to
support the demand for learning are still scarce in Europe.[23] Almost all the financial
mechanisms targeted towards individuals and employers to support the demand for
lifelong learning can engender deadweight losses. The magnitude of these losses
may vary among financial mechanisms. For instance, high potential deadweight
losses are often associated with tax incentives[24] and
are apparent in case of skilled individuals. Also, levy-based funding schemes
are often criticised for their high ‘deadweight’. This is particularly relevant
among large enterprises that would have spent more than legal minimum anyway.
Deadweight effects can be limited through targeting the incentive to groups
traditionally underrepresented in training. However, this may lead to increased
administrative burdens for both suppliers and employers[25]. A last drawback relates to
administrative complexity and burden engendered by these financial mechanisms.
Administrative complexity is apparent in the French train-or-pay scheme due to
the complexity of the transfer of funds to various education and training
stakeholders and to multiple training initiatives. Such complexity tends to
reduce the effectiveness of the scheme in France.[26]
Administrative requirements to benefit from these financial mechanisms can be
too heavy, and thus act as a disincentive for employers and individuals.
However the level of administrative burden differs among the various financing
mechanisms; tax-based schemes for individuals and enterprises are often
associated with a low level of administrative burden, contrary to subsidy-based
schemas.[27]
2.2. Financial incentives for individuals to stimulate participation in
CVET
Across Member States,
financial support to individual learners can take the form of: a) Individual learning accounts, vouchers and training allowances; b) Training loans; c) Tax-based schemes. a) Individual learning
accounts, vouchers and training allowances; These three financing
instruments are the most widely used instruments in Europe.[28] The main characteristics of a
funding system based on vouchers or learning accounts are[29]: –
Rather than allocating public funding to
education and training providers the purchase power of individuals is
stimulated; –
The demand from the side of individuals should
affect the supply in terms of type of offer as well as its costs; –
Such system requires a comprehensive information
system to: 1) enable information flow between supply and demand side, 2)
control the utilisation of loans and vouchers, 3) ensure the quality of
education training supplied meets the required standards. –
In terms of socio-economic characteristics of
participants: women tend to benefit more, utilisation increases with education
levels; evidence on the extent to which the funding is effectively used by
those who would not have been able to benefit from training otherwise is mixed,
and a significant proportion of those who benefit would have funded the
training even in the absence of the vouchers or account system (i.e. there is
considerable deadweight funding); older people are underrepresented. –
There is a need to monitor the quality of
training provided (e.g. through accreditation) which creates other types of
costs compared to direct subsidies to providers. Individual
learning accounts have gained increasing attention of policy makers over recent
years, especially in the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Austria, Ireland, Italy, and Malta. However, their success has been sometimes questioned. For
instance, the United Kingdom suspended its "Individual Account for
Learning" programme in 2001, only a year after its creation. The programme
foresaw a complement of 150 GBP from public resources to an individual's
deposit of 25 GBP. The individual was to use this amount to finance training
provided by registered providers. The government expected that one million
accounts would be opened in two years with the cost of 15 million. However, in
one year, more than 2,5 million learning accounts were opened, and the
programme was suspended due to numerous fraud cases that occurred due to lack
of sufficient control mechanisms.[30] Other European
countries such as Sweden or the Netherlands also decided not to proceed further
with the initial individual learning accounts they set up.[31] In a
comprehensive international review of individual learning accounts, Cedefop
found that the participation of certain at-risk groups of individuals – namely
workers with low incomes, the low skilled of employees working in SMEs – is
extremely low unless these mechanisms target such groups.[32] A summary of
evidence on saving accounts indicates that this type of funding is likely to
only have a marginal role to play as sums saved are in general low and the
people most at need are unlikely to be able to put money aside[33]. According to
several studies there seems to be rather large deadweight loss[34] (more than
50%) in using learning accounts. However, those individuals who would not have
taken part in learning had they not used the learning account, seem to have
these characteristics: being risk-averse and using the funds for training of
rather general nature.[35]
Vouchers and training
allowances can be used to cover the cost of tuition fees and the indirect
training costs such as the transportation costs, the accommodation expenses,
the costs of study materials, and the forgone earnings. Training allowances
covering tuition fees are nevertheless sometimes subjected to refund if the
learner does not complete successfully the learning programme. However, an analysis shows that
considerable deadweight can be associated with this instrument.[36] Training vouchers in Germany The
Federal Employment Agency (Bundesagentur für Arbeit – BA) is the labour
market's biggest service provider. As a public body with self-governance it
acts independently within the framework of applicable law. The
training voucher contains among other things information on the education aim,
the duration required until reaching this education aim, the regional scope and
the validity of no more than three months in which the training voucher must be
redeemed. On the conditions defined on the training voucher, the person
interested in education can redeem the training voucher at an institution
approved for supported further education of his/her choice. But also the
measure must be approved for supported further education.The participation must
be necessary for the professional integration of unemployed persons, to avert
concretely threatening unemployment or because the necessity of further
education is approved due to lack of training qualification. The
participant can redeem the training voucher within its validity period for the
participation in an approved measure with an education aim corresponding to the
training voucher. As proof of the admission of a further education measure, the
respective institution can present certification of an expert authority.
Information on approved measures can be obtained from the data base for
training and further education KURSNET. The approval must be valid at the time
of entry in further training. The education institution selected by the
participant confirms on the training voucher (copy for the institution) the
admission to the approved measure and presents the training voucher to the
issuing Employment Agency before the beginning of the measure. Source: http://www.arbeitsagentur.de/nn_431528/EN/zentraler-Content/Leistungen/Bildungsgutschein-EN-55440.html A refund of tuition fees for enrolment in formal adult
education programmes in Austria In
Austria, the province of Upper Austria has introduced a system named
Bildungskonto. Under this scheme, the administrative office of the government
of Upper Austria refunds 50 % of individual course fees to people participating
in further education, up to a maximum amount of EUR 830 (‘general’
Bildungskonto).People over 40 years of age and unskilled persons may have up to
80 % of their course fees refunded. The ‘special’ Bildungskonto allows
participants to submit a request for financial support amounting to 50 % of
their personal costs up to a maximum of EUR 1,660 if they produce a certificate
confirming successful completion. Preparatory courses for officially recognised
exams (e.g. Berufsreifeprüfung, apprenticeship certification exams, foremen’s
exams, etc.) are among the most frequently subsidised educational activities.
Different schemes to refund tuition fees also exist in all other provinces of Austria. Source: extracted from
Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency (2011), Adults in formal
education: policies and practices, Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications
of the European Communities Training vouchers in Belgium In
Belgium, in the Flemish Community and in the Brussels-Capital Region,
employees may purchase up to EUR 250 worth of training vouchers per calendar
year. They can use these vouchers to pay for training programmes organised by
education and training providers which are recognised by the public service for
labour and employment (VDAB), such as centres for adult education (CVOs). The
employee only needs to pay half of the cost of the training vouchers. Source: extracted from
Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency (2011), Adults in formal
education: policies and practices, Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications
of the European Communities b) Training loans Some countries allow learners
to benefit from training loans that are guaranteed by public authorities. In
the EU, 19 countries have loan schemes, but most of them are aimed at higher
education.[37]
However, this could benefit adult learners as it might facilitate adult access
to higher education. These bank loans must be repaid by learners at the end of
the learning period. In the case of loans[38]: –
The principle is to provide individuals with
insufficient liquidity/purchase power with the possibility to fund education
and training; –
Public loans intervene in the absence of lack of
private bank loans which do not exist because the investment is considered
insecure; –
Given that loans are to be repaid they are more
likely to be employed for professionally relevant learning; –
This mechanism could be a good complement to
fund education and training that is costly or to intervene in times of economic
downturn when employers have less funds to support training. Evidence of their
effectiveness is not broadly available, but in the UK the evaluation of the
Career Development Loans shows that those who benefit most are males and people
with relatively low incomes, though being in general qualified or highly
qualified[39].
In the United Kingdom, there exists one loan scheme expressly targeted at
disadvantaged groups.[40] Evaluation of UK PCDL (Professional and career development loan) The evaluation report available for the UK PCDL was commissioned by the Learning and Skills Council (LSC; then the managing institution of the scheme) and produced in January 2008 (LSC, 2008). Surveys of learners, learning providers, and other stakeholders were carried out covering the period of learning 2001-06. The impact of the PCDL scheme was evaluated positively: more than 80% of learners agreed that the loan helped them develop new skills and had a positive impact on their qualifications, income, employment prospects or future training. The deadweight effect was estimated to be low (with half of respondents saying they would not have been able to take the course without the loan and only 13% saying they would have definitely taken the course), but it was also reported that most borrowers had decided to learn before they explored the PCDL as a funding option. However, the learning providers indicated that the loan scheme was very important in giving an opportunity for those without sufficient financial resources to take the learning. This was confirmed by the survey findings that, for nearly 90% of the learners, PCDL were the only source of financial assistance for which they were eligible. The scheme was also reported to have created over GBP 90 million (EUR 104.49 million) of additional wage revenue. In terms of equity, it was noted that people living in London and South East England (the most economically prosperous areas in the UK) were significantly overrepresented among the scheme users. This raises significant concerns about the ability of people from less economically developed regions, as well as people with lower income in general, to access the loan. However, it was reported that 60% of loan takers earned GPB 15 000 (EUR 17 415) per year or less, so most of the borrowers were low-income. Access to loans did not differ significantly between ethnic groups. The sustainability of the scheme was also evaluated positively, considering the low cost to the public purse. Source: CEDEFOP (2012) Loans for vocational education and training in Europe; Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. Cedefop’s review of education
and training loans in 33 European countries (with focus on those schemes where
government plays some role[41])
revealed that they are widely available for higher education. There are fewer
loans available for continuing VET. The review allowed identifying some core
‘good practice’ principles for designing and implementing loan schemes[42] ·
Extended eligibility (including part-time
learners) ·
Flexible repayments with built-in income
safeguard ·
Operated by a specialised institution with
expertise, know-how ·
Level of State subsidy aligned with loan scheme ·
Involvement of financial institutions and tax
authorities in administering the loans (e.g. repayment collection) ·
Synergies with other financing instruments and
other public policies ·
Use of non-financial measures (monitoring and
evaluation; communication and guidance strategies) c) Tax-based schemes Half of the European countries[43] have set up
various tax-based schemes to encourage individuals or certain
groups of individuals to participate in learning activities, although in many
countries tax policies are still disconnected from education and training
policy. Tax-based schemes for
individuals mainly consist of tax allowances, tax credits, and tax exemptions.
Tax incentives for individuals are often more restrictive than those for
employers. They often require individuals to undertake learning in the
tradition formal education and training system, generally at secondary or
higher education level. In addition, not all individuals undertaken such
learning can benefit from these taxes in several countries where they are
available. Finally, the type of costs supported by tax incentives can be
restricted to course fees only.[44]
According to Cedefop studies, tax credits for individuals are effective,
whereas tax allowances (both for individuals and for legal entities) are in
many cases regarded as ineffective[45].
Tax incentives to individuals are more interesting to those with high incomes
than to those with low incomes which results in lower net costs for those with
higher incomes[46].
Overall, it seems that tax reductions for direct training expenditure are an
effective means to stimulate participation in education and training and
up-skilling of people in employment. Based on calculations that build on
empirical evidence it seems that at a marginal tax rate of 0.4, every euro
invested by the government in the form of tax deduction, leads from 0.75 to 1.5
euro of private expenditure on training[47]. Time is an
important resource for training – about 70 % of those not engaged in adult
learning mention time as a constraint (AES 2007), either because of family
responsibilities (particularly female) or work schedule (particularly male).
This is why an important source
of support to individuals is time for training or paid (or unpaid) leave.
Most countries have in place some form of educational/training leave. Training
leaves can be funded either publicly or by employer. SMEs experience probably the highest
difficulties in using training leave. The paid training leave
addresses two main constraints that prevent adults from participation in
education and training: time and financial constraints. Cedefop review of
educational/training leave implementation in 33 European countries[48] shows that
SMEs seem to face two major difficulties: lack of information and considerable
difficulties in organising training leave, due to administrative burden and
human resources constraints. The review showed that the
impact of the crisis on implementation of training leave was two-fold. On the
one hand, in some countries the funding available to training leave diminished
as State and employers could not retain the previous level of investment. On
the other hand, some countries adopted the instrument and increased funding to
keep people employed and raise their skills. Training leave in Austria During the crisis the regional governments provided additional funding through Bildungskarenz-Plus, which allowed overcoming reluctance of employers to send employees for training leave and preventing redundancies in companies. There was a sharp increase in take-up of training leave from 2008 onwards – up to 10.000, i.e. 0.3% employees (traditionally, on average there were 1.000 participants, i.e. 0.03% of employees). The training leave became more inclusive in terms of sectors, regions and qualifications covered. The take up of training leave for education and training at ISCED 2-3 increased sixfold and in seasonal qualifications increased sevenfold. Men, manufacturing sector employees and the regions hit hardest by the crisis started to use training leave more. Source: Cedefop (forthcoming) Training leave in Europe: Regulations and practice The review of training leave
across Europe showed that targeted, group-specific training leave is the most
successful type of training leave in terms of overall performance. Unpaid
training leave does not provide equal access for disadvantaged employees as
they do not have the resources to cover foregone income as well as other costs
of training leave. High-skilled employees in large companies will always
benefit more in using untargeted and (or) unpaid training leave. Therefore the
key objective is to promote (via paid training leave) access of disadvantaged
employees.[49] Alternative solutions to
subsidised training leave are learning time accounts. Documentation of the
effectiveness of these funding forms is limited but they seem to be rather
underused[50].
2.3.
Financial incentives for employers to stimulate supply of CVET
Funding mechanisms for
employers can be divided in two main categories: ·
Compulsory
arrangements with levy-exemption schemes ·
Non-compulsory
arrangements with subsidies and tax incentives a) Compulsory arrangements –
levy-exemption schemes Many European countries have
set up compulsory arrangements to ensure a minimum financial commitment of
employers in learning. Levy schemes, based on a contribution of a given
percentage of firms’ payrolls (fixed by governments or collective agreements)
set up predetermined minimum levels of funding in training to be committed to
by employers. These schemes can be sectoral,
regional or national. Especially the sectoral schemes address the poaching
problem. In general they reach their aim of increasing the incidence of
training in companies, and thus they also contribute to raising the
productivity, competitiveness and incomes of enterprises and individuals by
providing them with needed skills[51]. However, it has also been
noted that for those companies that would train in any case, these schemes may
reduce training to the minimum required. These arrangements mainly
consist of levy-grant schemes. The French model is significantly different from
the others. French enterprises are subject to a ‘levy-exemption (also called
train-or-pay) mechanism[52].
Firms can then reduce their levy obligations and even be exempted of such
obligations by financing training to their employees. Unspent funds are then
transferred to special funds. The train-or-pay scheme in France All
enterprises in France have to contribute to the financing of continuing
vocational training. The financial contribution is based on a percentage of
enterprises’ gross payrolls. This percentage nevertheless varies according to
the size of enterprises. From the continuing vocational training tax of 0.55%,
the employer with less than 10 employees should allocate: ·
0.15% to special (multi-) sectoral actions
defined by social partners and to the national initiative, called droit
inviduel à la formation, granting the right for each employee to participate in
continuing vocational up to 20 hours per year ·
0.40% to training under the employer training
plan. From
the continuing vocational training tax of 1.05%, the employer with 10 to 19
employees should allocate: ·
0.15% to special (multi-) sectoral actions
defined by social partners ·
0.90% to training under the employer training
plan. From
the continuing vocational training tax of 1.55%, the employer with more than 20
employees should allocate: ·
0.20% to specific national initiatives on
training leave (congé individuel de formation, congé de bilan de competences,
congé validation des acquis de l’expérience) ·
0.50% to special (multi-) sectoral actions
defined by social partners ·
0.90 % to training under the employer
training plan. If
the employer does not invest the required percentage of the tax to training
under the enterprise’ training plan, the unspent funds are then allocated to
special national funds. Source: http://www.dfc.ccip.fr/ b) Non-compulsory arrangements
– subsidies, tax incentives and payback clauses Through non-compulsory
arrangements, employers can receive financial incentives to invest in learning,
mainly subsidies and tax incentives. The eligibility requirements to
beneficiate and use these financial mechanisms are often targeted at certain
groups (e.g. SMEs or groups of workers), certified learning programmes,
accredited training providers, direct training costs, and firm and sector
specific learning content. Subsidies to employers are used by
governments to share the direct costs of training and also a substantial share
of the indirect costs (e.g. foregone income) of internal or external training
borne by employers. These subsidies are frequently granted to firms on a
selective basis, often to firms in the framework of active labour market
policies in order to provide learning to at-risk workers so that they are not
excluded from the labour market. Subsidies are also often used by governments
to support the training of workers in SMEs who are often less likely to receive
the most formalised forms of continuing vocational training than their
counterparts in larger firms.[53]
In many European countries,
governments provide tax incentives for employers to give them the right
incentives to invest in training, including initial vocational training.[54] These taxes
for employers consist of tax allowances, tax credits, and tax exemptions. Most
of them are however tax credits. Government intervention to support investment
by enterprises can take the form of training loans, especially for SMEs. Payback clauses are another form of
encouraging employers' investment in training. They are essentially a legal
instrument that encourages companies to bear the costs of training by allowing
them to retain employees for a certain time after training in compensation for
its provision. In fact, employees are free to move to another company but, if
they terminate the contract within contractual retention period, they may be
requested to reimburse (a share of) the costs of training[55]. Payback clauses and associated
with them contractual retention period should not be seen, however, only as a
safeguard for employers (preventing from poaching, fluctuations of trained
staff) but also as a safeguard for employers (who may feel more secure about
continuity of employment after training)[56].
Although payback clauses can be found in most European countries (regulated
through national law, collective agreement (at (inter-)sectoral level between
social partners) or agreements at company level (between employer and
individual, or management and trade union representatives), little data is
available on their implementation in employment/training contracts or
enforcement.[57] Agreement
for information, communication and technology sector in Netherlands In
this sector, companies are requested to design a concept for easier access to
qualification programmes. This agreement states how employers shall contribute
financially to the development of employee’s skills and acquisition of qualifications
depending on the kind of training. The following differentiations are made: • training
for current functions or tasks that need to be fulfilled on short notice within
the company; • training
for future tasks within the company. In
both cases, expenses are to be borne by the employer and training should take
place as much as possible during working hours. In the case of training for
maintaining and increasing employability that has no direct connection to the
current employee’s function or a task s/he will fulfil in the near future, but
which can be regarded as reasonable for a possible future task, the following
differences are to be made. The employer shall grant full financial support for
tuition and enrolment fees, exams and administration costs, and 50% for the
expenses for learning materials such as books for training that leads to a
diploma or certificate within the period of time agreed prior to training. The
qualification units shall take place as much as possible during working hours. Reimbursement
of training costs The
employer has the right to reclaim reimbursement of costs in case of training
interruption by the employee without specific justification and due to
termination of employment shortly after completion of training. The employee
can be requested to reimburse 100% of the costs within the first year and 50%
during the second year after completion of training. These standards are also
valid if the employee is dismissed for reasonable causes. Source:
Cedefop, Payback clauses in Europe: supporting company investment in training;
Office for Official Publications of the European Communities The
experience of an appliance manufacturing company in Sweden A large
Swedish appliance manufacturer with around 2 500 employees promotes career
development by providing training. For higher and postgraduate education
programmes the company reaches agreements on payback clauses only with
employees with permanent employment contracts. The clause includes fees and
payments for training courses as well as travel and subsistence costs. The
retention period and the reimbursement conditions are specified case-by-case
according to the amount of training expenses, but the following example is
typical: – contracts
on the obligation to reimburse the cost of paid training; – the
employee (name) has been offered and has accepted the invitation to attend the
training course called XXXX on Trade; – the
cost of training amounts to SEK (amount); – the
training is conducted during the period up to (date); – the
employee (name) agrees to reimburse part of the training cost upon the
employee's voluntary termination of employment as follows:
• 100% of course fee has to be reimbursed prior to the completion of training;
• 100% of course fee within six months after the completion of training;
• 75% of course fee within one year after training;
• 50% of course fee within two years after training;
• 25% of course fee within three years after training. In the event
that a newly hired employee has to reimburse the cost of training provided by
former employers, the company assumes the reimbursement obligation if the new
employee has left his or her former employer explicitly to join the company for
professional reasons. Currently, only around 10 contracts contain agreements on
payback clauses in this company. As the share of employees who undertake
training and subsequently resign within the retention period is equal to zero,
there have been no reimbursement requests in the last year and so far the
company has never brought legal proceedings to obtain reimbursement from
employees unwilling to reimburse. Source: Cedefop: Payback clauses in Europe: supporting company investment in training; Office for Official Publications of the
European Communities
3.
State of play of VET systems in the EU in view
of developing excellence
This section provides an
overview of progress Member States have done in key areas (so called
"short term deliverables") defined in the Bruges Communiqué closely
related to VET excellence: ·
VET attractiveness; ·
Work-based learning and cooperation between VET
institutions and enterprises; ·
Partnerships for creativity and innovation as
well as effective use of innovative technology in VET. The information in
this chapter is Cedefop's analysis of EU Member States’ progress in addressing
the short-term deliverables of the Bruges Communiqué[58], designed
notably to serve the purpose of following-up the Bruges Communiqué.
Country specific information may be subject to change, as validation by Member
States was still on-going at the time of writing.
3.1.
VET attractiveness in the EU countries
VET attractiveness is a
multidimensional concept which depends on unique characteristics of countries
system. One element which captures VET attractiveness is the share of VET
students in upper secondary education (see Figure 2 below). Figure 2 – Students enrolled in
vocational upper secondary education, 2010, as a % of all students enrolled in
upper secondary education (ISCED level 3) Source:
Cedefop, based on data from Eurostat, UOE data collection on education systems Date
of extraction: 05/10/2012 -
Students in
pre-vocational programmes are included both in the numerator and the
denominator of the indicator -
Additional country notes available on Eurostat website
Within the Bruges Communiqué,
countries have agreed to support VET attractiveness by demonstrating the value
and benefits of VET through campaigns and skills competitions. The following
table gives an overview of possible policy measures in this area countries had
in place in 2010 and progress they have made since then. Table
1 – Campaigns and skills competitions to promote VET attractiveness - trends Source:
Based on Cedefop (2012,
forthcoming): Trends in VET policy in Europe 2010-2012. Progress towards the Bruges Communiqué. Please note that the
results have not yet been validated by all Member States. It should also be
kept in mind that the selection of policy options is not comprehensive;
indications should be seen also in the national context of all actions taken in
a general strategy to achieve the objectives of the Bruges Communiqué. Improving the
attractiveness of VET has been a European policy objective since the beginning
of the Copenhagen process in 2002; and countries have devoted a lot of
attention to the issue, also before 2010. Education and career fairs with a VET
focus take place in all countries and skills competitions are held in almost
all of them. Campaigns to attract young people to VET have been subject to some
adjustments since 2010 in the majority of countries while 9 countries have
introduced them. Two main trends are visible. A number of countries are
expanding or improving the use of the internet to promote VET (BE fl, BE fr,
DE, EE, FR, PL, SI) and several countries are increasingly promoting VET
opportunities to young people that meet current or future labour needs or
shortages (DE, LT, NL, SK). Making
trades a hands-on experience Trade
villages help young people discover technical and craft occupations. Young
people (18-25) still in training present their skills using practical
experiments. The villages are a highly appreciated initiative: 2 500 pupils,
parents, workers and job seekers attended the villages and appreciate the
hands-on experience with a range of jobs. Source: ReferNet Belgium for Cedefop (2012,
forthcoming) Campaigns to make adults
aware of the benefits of VET were in place in 2010 in about half of the countries.
8 had them in place by 2010, 7 have adjusted them since and 9 have introduced
them since 2010. Campaigns to encourage
enterprises to provide or invest in VET were in place in about half of the
countries, 4 countries have introduced them since 2010 and 5 countries are
preparing to implement campaigns. These campaigns sometimes include financial
support for apprenticeship places or encourage enterprises to cooperate more
with VET (LU, PL) to support VET teachers' and trainers' competence development.
Only 6 countries do not (yet) have campaigns to encourage enterprises to become
involved in VET.
3.2. State of play of work-based learning and cooperation between VET
institutions and enterprises
Work-based learning is becoming a more
popular feature of VET systems. Based on available data from 17 EU countries,
the proportion of work-based learning in VET is more than 20% in 9 countries
(see the Figure 3 below). Figure
3 – Proportion of VET students enrolled in combined work- and school-based VET,
2010, as % of all students in upper secondary VET (ISCED level 3) Source:
Cedefop, based on data from Eurostat, UOE data collection on education systems Date of
extraction: 03/07/2012 -
In the UOE data
collection, a VET programme is classified as "combined work- and
school-based "if 25% or more of the curriculum is presented outside the
school environment. Programmes where the work based component accounts for 90%
or more of the curriculum are excluded from the UOE data collection. -
Data only available
for a sub-set of countries. Based
on the UOE metadata, the category "Combined work- and school-based
VET" is not applicable to the educational systems of Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Portual; figures on the category "Combined work- and school-based
VET" are very low in Slovenia and Estonia (less than 1%); they are not
available in Malta, Romania and the UK. Cyprus reported real zero values.
Additional information on the magnitude of the category "Combined work and
school based VET" has been retrieved elsewhere for the following
countries: Sweden (OECD, EAG 2012): negligible; Lithuania (Eurostat, EU-LFS AHM
2009): important -
Students in
pre-vocational programmes are considered in both the numerator and the
denominator of the indicator. -
Additional information on UOE methodology is available
at Eurostat website In the Bruges Communiqué, countries have
committed themselves to maximising work-based learning. Table 2 indicates a
range of possible policies and measures in the area of work-based learning
countries had in place in 2010 and developments in these areas since then. Table 2 – Work-based learning ‒
developments and trends in selected policy areas Source:
Based on Cedefop (2012,
forthcoming): Trends in VET policy in Europe 2010-2012. Progress towards the Bruges Communiqué. Please note that the
results have not yet been validated by all Member States. It should also be
kept in mind that the selection of policy options is not comprehensive;
indications should be seen also in the national context of all actions taken in
a general strategy to achieve the objectives of the Bruges Communiqué. One of the most important aspects of
work-based learning is its quality and relevance to labour market needs based
on cooperation between VET providers and enterprises. In this area, a
significant progress has been made: 7 countries have developed and put in
place a strategy to foster cooperation between VET and enterprises and another
8 countries are preparing to implement such a strategy. Some examples of
measures that were put in place are new adult education training centres
involving employers (DK), a national plan for quality assurance in VET
involving social partners (IT), and the qualification-employment programme
focused on upgrading staff during periods of work time reduction in cooperation
with employers (PT). Some countries are preparing a stronger involvement of
enterprises in VET in curricula and planning (EE, LT, PL); the UK national occupational standards strategy requires consultation with employers on skill
needs to ensure relevance of CVET. Incentives for enterprises to provide
training or employment are a common feature in many VET systems. But more
importantly the incentives provided to enterprises are not static, but evolve
dynamically: 12 countries made changes or adjustments to measures that were
already in place by 2010. Such adjustments concern employment subsidies to
enterprises to train or employ unemployed (BE, LT, PT) and new or increased
bonuses for companies that train (DK, DE). Austria started to subsidise wage
for apprentices abroad and Norway increased its special grant scheme for
apprentices with special needs and high risk of drop out. Four countries are
preparing or introduced new measures to provide financial support to
enterprises for apprenticeship places (BG, SI, IS, SK). More
training places needed in Denmark To make
sure that by 2015, 95% of youth will complete at least secondary education, the
Danish government is promoting new training places, which have been in short
supply. In 2011, 9 000 extra training places were created and bonuses to
enterprises who create them were increased. The government created 2 200 places
in the public sector and 1 500 places in colleges. Creating new training places
does not only help young people to successfully complete school. It also helps
to make IVET more attractive. Many young people considering IVET don’t choose
it as they fear not being able to find a suitable training place. Source: ReferNet Denmark for
Cedefop(2012, forthcoming) Learning methods in VET that include
simulated or real business experience were in place in 23 countries by 2010. In
5 countries, business experience is currently being introduced in VET learning
methods. Countries integrate business experience in VET in diverse ways. In Denmark, a foundation for entrepreneurship develops learning methods, while Estonia introduced entrepreneurship camps in some VET schools, where students put together a
business plan in 12 hours. Poland introduced innovative entrepreneurship tools
that include virtual business games. Services that assist in finding training
places for VET learners in enterprises existed in 22 countries by 2012 and 3
further countries are developing such services. These countries strengthen the
responsibility of VET schools in supporting students in finding training places
(EE, RO) or see a role for industry chambers in providing this service (LT).
Only six countries did not report on services helping VET learners find
enterprise training places by 2010 and undertook no action since. Table 3 below shows in other possible
ways in which VET cooperates with business, notably to ensure teacher
development is up-to-date. Table 3 – Cooperation between VET
institutions and enterprises to ensure teacher development is
up-to-date Source:
Based on Cedefop (2012,
forthcoming): Trends in VET policy in Europe 2010-2012. Progress towards the Bruges Communiqué. Please note that the
results have not yet been validated by all Member States. It should also be
kept in mind that the selection of policy options is not comprehensive;
indications should be seen also in the national context of all actions taken in
a general strategy to achieve the objectives of the Bruges Communiqué. By 2010, 16 countries where training
their VET teachers and/or trainers to help learners acquire entrepreneurship
skills, which may involve VET-business cooperation, 4 countries started doing
so since 2010 and another 5 countries are preparing to implement such training.
Local
councils in Sweden bridging school and the world of work To make
upper secondary VET more relevant, local programme councils were established in
2011. These councils contribute to cooperation between VET and the world of
work, assist VET providers in arranging training places and participate in
organising and assessing diploma projects. Schools can deviate from national
programmes after consultation with the local programme council. Students are
not forgotten. The councils consult with students to get their point of view. Source: ReferNet Sweden for
Cedefop (2012, forthcoming) Business
taking the lead in developing a VET programme in Slovakia A Slovak
gas supplier and the chamber of trades jointly analysed skill needs in the gas
industry and the challenges that VET schools face in providing the right
skills. This led to the development of a new VET programme and study facilities
(equipment, learning materials, teaching aids) at three VET schools.
Partnerships between schools and business strengthened VET delivery, secured
the quality of training and helped to create jobs for graduates. Source: ReferNet Slovakia
for Cedefop (2012, forthcoming) Countries that introduce training to help
teachers transmit entrepreneurship skills are taking several types of actions. Germany’s entrepreneurial spirit initiative encourages teachers through professional
development and a dedicated webportal. Portugal created a training benchmark
for entrepreneurship and business creation (four short term training units),
which helps to prepare teachers. Slovakia introduced several accredited teacher
training programmes. By 2012, 14 countries had guidelines for
VET teacher professional development in place that includes traineeships in
enterprises. Another 8 countries are planning to implement such guidelines.
Dedicated services that assist VET institutions in finding partners in the
business world currently exist in 15 countries, and progress in this area
appears slow. 12 countries did not report on having taken action to establish
such services since 2010. Staff exchange between enterprises and VET providers
are not a prominent feature of VET-business cooperation, but there is
significant progress: 6 countries are preparing to implement guidelines to this
effect. In 2012, services that help VET teachers to find traineeships for
professional development in enterprises are only present in 8 countries and
progress in this area is very limited: in 2012, such services do not exist in
22 countries.
3.3. Development of partnerships for creativity and innovation and
effective use of innovative technology in VET
Creativity and innovation in VET are
important as they drive new ideas in business and industry, support competitiveness
through the development of new technologies, processes, and services and
ultimately impact on growth and prosperity. Figure 4 combines two core
dimensions that give an indication of innovation climate: enterprises with
training to support technological innovation (as a share of all enterprises)
and the share of innovative SMEs that cooperate with others. Cooperation could
be among SMEs but also between SMEs and other institutions (which include VET). Figure 4 - Share (%) of enterprises with
training to support technological development (2008, horizontal axis) and share
(%) of innovative SMEs cooperating with others (2008, vertical axis) Source: Cedefop – based on data from Eurostat and
Regional Innovation Scoreboard. Notes: Data is not available for all EU
countries; EU average includes EU countries except DK, IE and UK for the share of enterprises with training to support technological development; EU average
includes EU countries except EL for the share of innovative SMEs cooperating
with others. On average, in the EU, almost 1 in 5
enterprises train their staff to support innovation while 11.2% of innovative
SMEs cooperate with others. Countries with an above average share of innovative
enterprises investing in training tend to also have relatively many SMEs that
cooperate with others. The conditions for innovation and creativity appear to
be less favourable in 10 countries (RO, LV, BG, ES, MT, SK, PL, HU, LT and IT). Table 4 gives an overview of developments
and trends in possible policies and measures to support creativity and
innovation. . Table
4 – Partnerships for creativity and innovation – developments and trends in
selected policy areas Source:
Based on Cedefop (2012,
forthcoming): Trends in VET policy in Europe 2010-2012. Progress towards the Bruges Communiqué. Please note that the
results have not yet been validated by all Member States. It should also be
kept in mind that the selection of policy options is not comprehensive;
indications should be seen also in the national context of all actions taken in
a general strategy to achieve the objectives of the Bruges Communiqué. Next to skills competitions, creativity
and innovation competitions open to VET learners and institutions are common in
many countries. 21 countries had such competitions in 2010 and another 3
countries developed and held creativity and innovation competitions since then.
9 countries adapted, changed or stepped up their innovation competitions
between 2010 and 2012. Belgium introduced a new contest for innovation and
sustainable development, the Czech Republic started a new competition on
innovative teaching and the design of digital material for teachers, and in Latvia, a new education innovation project competition started. Lithuania introduced
competitions among training companies and Slovenia held a creativity and
innovation week. In 15 countries, creativity
and innovation was already an underlying principle in VET by 2010 and another 9
countries took steps since then to better integrate innovation and creativity
in VET. Belgium (FR) launched a creativity programme in 2010 that advocates
adapting education and training policies to support creativity and innovation.
In France, there is a partnership to
create mini enterprises. Slovakia created new VET centres to support innovation
and creativity and adopted new strategies on the knowledge economy and science
and technology in 2011. Sweden’s strategy for entrepreneurship in education and
training aims to turn ideas into action by starting new businesses. There has been considerable progress in
terms of including VET in innovation strategies since 2010. By 2010, only 7
countries had innovation strategies that included VET. Since then, 5 countries
have put in place such a strategy while 11 countries are preparing for this.
Innovation or creativity clusters that include VET and guidelines encouraging
partnerships and cooperation to develop learning methods in VET that foster
creativity and innovation are also becoming more common, but most countries
that took action here since 2010 are still in the preparation stage. The
strategic development plan in Belgium (Wallonia) foresees the development of
enterprise networks, Estonia prepares to establish centers of competence in
2014 to drive entrepreneurship at regional level, and technical and
professional networks are promoted in Italy. Knowledge exchange platforms for
creativity and innovation are present in 17 countries in 2012, but another 13
countries did not report on such platforms. Slow progress in some countries
could be due to missing incentives: Half of the countries did not report on
incentives for creativity and innovation partnerships including VET providers.
Examples of incentives promoting partnerships are financing VET schools to
become involved in competence centres (EE), making funding for higher VET
dependent on cooperation and partnerships with enterprises and social partners
(SE) and national and ESF funding for developing modern training material where
priority is given to projects involving partnerships (LT). Using innovative technology in VET
stimulates creativity and innovation, but also fosters the labour market
relevance and quality of VET. Table 5 provides an overview of developments and
trends in this area. Table
5 – Effective and innovative use of technology in VET – developments and trends
in selected policy areas Source:
Based on Cedefop (2012,
forthcoming): Trends in VET policy in Europe 2010-2012. Progress towards the Bruges Communiqué. Please note that the
results have not yet been validated by all Member States. It should also be
kept in mind that the selection of policy options is not comprehensive;
indications should be seen also in the national context of all actions taken in
a general strategy to achieve the objectives of the Bruges Communiqué. By 2010, 20 countries already had a
strategy in place to ensure that VET uses state-of the art technology. Another
5 countries have acted since 2010 to put in place such a strategy. More than
half of the countries with a strategy in 2010 have made adjustments since.
Examples of adjustments include setting up regional technology centres in Belgium (Flanders), regulations that identify crucial areas of technology for SME which are a point
of reference for higher VET (IT), changes in funding for upgrading VET school
equipment (HU), an improved framework for practical training agreements for
students in companies (RO) and increased funding for technology in VET (UKEN). State
of the art not only in technology, but also in ensuring access to all in Belgium Flanders The 72
hours initiative helps young people in VET schools gain access to state of the
art equipment in the training facilities of the employment service. As
unemployed also use these facilities, planning is a core concern. Special attention
is especially needed to avoid unemployed trainees being pushed away by VET
students. Source: ReferNet Belgium for
Cedefop (2012, forthcoming) By 2012, VET is cooperating with business
and industry to ensure relevant technology in 17 countries, while another 7
countries are taking action to promote such cooperation. In 15 countries
VET-enterprise cooperation takes the form of networks or joint-ventures.
Incentives for VET provider networks and public-private partnerships are not
yet commonly available in most countries, but some progress is visible, as some
countries have started to prepare to implement such incentives since 2010. Estonia’s development plan for the VET system aims to increase the efficiency of
cooperation between VET, local government and the third sector to ensure better
use of resources. Latvia issued guidelines to optimise its VET network by
establishing VET competence centres that methodologically support VET schools.
Higher VET in Sweden requires close cooperation and partnerships with
enterprises and social partners in order to be funded. It is of course crucial that VET teachers
and trainers are trained to use modern technology learning methods and 16
countries reported on training to support VET teachers and trainers in place by
2010. Another 11 countries are preparing to offer such training to their VET
staff. Initiatives include retraining pedagogic specialists to help teachers
use state of the art technology (BG), a national training on active learning
methods for VET teachers (EE), the implementation of a policy to help trainers
use ICT skills in education and keep up with technological developments (CY),
teachers working in inter-company training centres to keep up to date (SI), and
opportunities for VET teachers to take part in workplace internships (SE).
4. Excellence in VET: key points and lessons from practice
European
VET must aim at world excellence, both as regards what it aims for (the
standards) and as regards its actual performance. Some of the best VET systems
in the world are European and these must be used as reference for future
developments. Cooperation on VET excellence means: -
a systematic European cooperation on VET
standards to make sure that expected outcomes are explicitly stated and
continuously improved with reference to the changing requirements of society
and economy; -
a systematic European cooperation on how to most
efficiently translate expected outcomes into high quality teaching and
learning for initial and continuing VET; -
a systematic European cooperation on measuring
and comparing the performance of national VET systems and individual
learners, providing feedback on strengths as well as weaknesses of
countries, sectors, providers and groups of learners. A
European strategy on VET excellence could, by combining the above elements, -
reduce the difference between EU countries as
regards the quality and impact of VET; -
firmly establish world excellence as the common
and operational reference point for all VET systems in Europe. VET
excellence at a Glance While it is important to state a general
vision as regards VET, it can only be realised through a multi-level approach.
The figure below presents the core features of VET excellence that will be
further developed in the following sections. Although these core dimensions can
be grouped depending on the level at which excellence is measured, all of them
are interrelated and must work in synergy. For systems, a key element is the use of evidence
based approaches and policy learning as a means to improve system performance
(OECD/CERI 2010).[59] Policy alignment between
education, training, labour market and economic and innovation policies is
another critical condition. Partnerships with stakeholders promote constant
systemic innovation. VET is not an isolated subsector, but an integral part of
the overall education and training system. Excellence at system level means
that VET profiles/qualifications are designed in a close cooperation between
social partners, relevant sectors and the education and training system to
ensure highest possible relevance and competitiveness. The revision and renewal
of VET standards/qualifications must be continuous and need increasingly to be
embedded in and supported by European cooperation, for example through the
sectoral mechanisms currently being set up. This process must be supported by
quality assurance mechanisms at all levels. Excellence must however also be
combined with flexible systems, enabling mobility, permeability between VET and
higher education (HE) as well as increased opportunities for individuals to
return to learning, including drop outs or low achievers.[60]. For companies, VET excellence is rooted in
integrative work organisation and involves multiple measures that support the
development of the workforce within a lifelong learning context. It builds on
effective skills utilisation that promotes the active engagement and autonomy
of the individual. It implies that firms take part of the responsibility to
educate and train the workforce of tomorrow. Companies are key actors in the
provision of initial VET (by helping to define curricula, hosting and training
trainees and apprentices, participating in exam boards) as well as in the field
of continuous VET. Strong partnerships with education and training providers
regarding issues such as innovative approaches to work based learning for young
people as well as the existing workforce, training needs assessment and career
guidance, are essential.[61] For VET providers and
institutions, a crucial element is a coherent strategy that can be
communicated to stakeholders, and whose starting point is the socio-economic
profile of the region. Another critical factor for success is to
encourage providers to more systematically cooperate with other schools, businesses
and institutions in their region. A third factor is to actively and when
possible link to partners outside the region, at national and international
level. This can provide a source for inspiration and ideas, as well as a
reference point for improving the quality of the education and training
delivered locally. Finally, institutional leadership, which shows strategic
direction and support collaborative environment for all staff, with career
development opportunities is also a pivotal condition. For learners, the aim is to train accomplished
professionals who have the competence to master fully and autonomously the
tasks of their profession. They are capable of facing problems and coming up
with solutions even in challenging situations and innovative or fast changing
(work) contexts. They have the capacity and the right attitudes to work in a
company and have a broader vision of their profession. They are capable of
tackling and solving complex tasks with other professionals from a different
background, focusing on process and product improvements and value creation.
First and foremost they can cope with change and complexity as they possess the
skills and competences critical to lifelong learning which enable people to
have more and better jobs as well as create their own businesses.
4.1. Successful VET strategies require a strategic approach to excellence
Some EU countries, VET providers,
companies and other stakeholders have developed innovative practises aiming at
systematically achieving VET excellence. The lessons from these can be used to
mainstream and trigger larger system-level change, including at European level.
Evidence shows that excellence in VET requires an approach based on several
policy elements: ·
VET at all levels (not only higher education) is
incorporated in national, regional and local economic strategies which connect
skills supply and demand, based on systematic skills monitoring and
anticipation; ·
Sufficient institutional autonomy and capacity,
so that VET providers can develop a strategic approach linked to local and
regional economy and react to skills challenges; ·
VET providers cooperate closely with companies,
authorities, technology centres and educational institutions, ranging from
local partnerships to international networks; ·
VET systems provide routes for progression and
reward and mainstream excellence; ·
Companies' engagement in CVET – including skills
development and utilisation at the workplace - is encouraged through incentives
and supporting structures; ·
VET teachers and trainers have opportunities and
incentives for continuous professional development in active cooperation with
companies; ·
European cooperation on VET standards,
particularly on a sector basis, ensures that expected outcomes of VET are set
and continuously improved in line with the changing requirements of society and
the economy – also at global level. Putting these elements into practice will
directly contribute to the Europe 2020 strategy, by helping Member States
exploit the unused potential of VET and implement the necessary reforms. At
local and regional level, these elements connect VET to Smart Specialisation
Strategies, by which regions focus their strategies on sectors where they can
be most successful in developing sustainable growth.[62]
4.2. Designing excellence in VET systems: lessons from practice
The design of an appropriate environment
for VET excellence requires several areas of intervention at system level; this
chapter provides best practice examples: a) Make VET an integral part of
comprehensive economic development strategies b) Ensure that VET includes high
level of qualifications and interacts better with other parts of the
education and training system c) Create conditions for the
flexibility and institutional autonomy of VET providers d) Include VET in comprehensive
labour market intelligence and governance e) Provide incentives for and
mainstream VET excellence f) Maximise the leverage of EU
instruments g) Increase opportunities for
mobility in VET a) Make VET an integral part of
comprehensive economic development strategies Policy makers need to integrate the VET
offer into comprehensive skills and knowledge-based economic development
strategies, particularly at regional and local level. This is related
mainly to strategies to attract investments, to clusters, innovation,
smart specialisation strategies and sustainable growth strategies. As shown below by the examples of Australia , there is a need to create policy frameworks which consider a continuous
rebalancing of both skills supply and skills demand. Comprehensive
approaches to skills supply and demand dynamics: Australia The
Australian Skills Ecosystem initiative is a reaction to growing evidence of
significant skills wastage at the same time as employers report skills
shortages. The initiative aims to align VET with economic development and
innovation measures and critically examines both supply side (responsive
education and training including training offer, skills profiles, recruitment
practices) and demand side (the way that skills can be optimally used, taking
into account such factors as work processes, leadership style, technology
deployment and competitiveness strategies). The main conclusion is that
expanding and improving the supply of qualified people is only a partial
solution. Improvements in productivity, innovation and growth are possible only
if policies align the supply of a qualified workforce with better use of skills
in a workplace. Key
points for Member States: ·
All
stakeholders ensure better consistency in policy making across different policy
areas, institutional cooperation which goes beyond traditional boundaries and
commitment mechanisms. ·
Policy
frameworks consider both supply and demand side factors. Supply side factors
can be addressed successfully through comprehensive lifelong learning policies.
To address underlying demand side factors it is necessary to develop business
cases, which demonstrate that competitiveness strategies that utilise advanced
human resource practices pay off in the medium term. Such business cases may
for instance demonstrate that a better skills utilisation can enable firms to
move up the value chain or provide tailored services on top of a particular
product. ·
Employers
and sector bodies are stimulated to be proactively engaged in policy making
processes by providing analysis and advice on the development of the future
workforce to meet the requirements of smart and sustainable growth. b) Ensure that VET includes high level of
qualifications and interacts better with other parts of the education and
training system One key aspect of promoting excellence in
vocational education and training is to break down barriers to general and
notably higher education. Notably, providing genuinely open pathways,
permeability between VET and HE, as well as development of post-secondary or
higher VET at EQF level 5 or higher[63]
has received increasing attention in the Member States. Various approaches are
being used, including top-up programmes, recognition of prior learning, or
schemes combining VET qualifications with general qualifications (for a more
detailed discussion and examples see Staff Working Document
"Partnerships and flexible pathways for lifelong skills development". c) Create conditions for the flexibility
and autonomy of VET providers The ambition of attaining VET excellence
requires that providers are proactive players in the regional, local and
sectoral economic context. For a VET provider it means developing the internal
capacity to deliver training and respond to rapid change. Flexibility and a
necessary degree of VET provider autonomy emerge as preconditions for coherent
strategies tailored to different national, regional, local and sectoral
circumstances. As the example of centres of VET
excellence in the Netherlands show, VET institutions and systems require
financial flexibility to work with the private sector and other education and
training providers. It highlights the need to ensure commitment from
enterprises through a combination of private and public investments. Centres
of VET excellence in the Netherlands In the Netherlands, VET excellence was introduced as a strategic priority parallel to similar
initiatives in higher education, through a new programme in 2009 to help
develop so-called centres of vocational innovation (CIVs). A CIV is a regional
cooperation between vocational schools, businesses, research organisations, and
public authorities focusing on one of the economic top sectors in the Netherlands, such as chemicals or water. The programme is co-financed (50% for five years)
by the Ministries of Economic Affairs, Agriculture and Innovation, and
Education, Culture and Science. Vocational institutions, corporations and
businesses, and SMEs invest together in the CIV, both financially and in kind.
All partners share in management and decision making activities. In 2011, four
CIVs have become operational, one of them in the automotive field. Essential
characteristics are: - The
CIV operates on demand. This implies that the schools involved adapt their
education programmes to the qualitative and quantitative needs of regional
businesses. - The
regional labour market demand is the focal point of a CIV. The focus is on
recruiting and training top talents based on the sector based innovation needs
of employers. - The
CIV cooperates closely with education institutions at all levels (secondary,
post-secondary and tertiary vocational schools as well as universities), to
optimise the use of facilities and to reinforce the dissemination of
cutting-edge practices). Source: Feijen, V. (2011) Dutch MBO Raad,
internal work paper, not published. Key points for Member States: ·
Policy
frameworks provide VET institutions with the autonomy and flexibility to be an
active partner in the local, regional and sectoral economic context and are
able to cooperate with the private sector; ·
VET
providers are supported to endorse change and innovation and to disseminate
cutting-edge practices. d) Include VET in comprehensive labour
market intelligence and governance From a system point of view, it is crucial
to ensure monitoring of structural changes and trends to be able to identify
priority sectors, as well as to promote employer-led initiatives which identify
future skills needs. These have to be translated, in cooperation with
employers' associations, trade unions and VET providers, into training content.
In this context, European Sector Skills Councils and Sector Skills Alliances
represent operational tools to put these efforts into practice on a sectoral
basis. The practice from the United Kingdom below demonstrates how an effective and dynamic interaction between employers
and VET providers can function, particularly in view of structural changes. Future
Skills Unit of ConstructionSkills - UK ConstructionSkills,
the UK Sector Skills Council and Industry Training Board for the construction
industry, established a Future Skills Unit with a specific remit of collecting
intelligence to undertake skills forecasting in the sector, focusing on
renewables, zero carbon, low carbon and technological change. The unit was a
catalyst for change. It served to facilitate change through high-level
partnerships with government departments, agencies and other built environment
Sector Skills Councils, which collect labour market intelligence to inform
policy and assist the construction industry in responding to changing demands. The
ConstructionSkills Network (CSN) provides a unique method of establishing the
future skills and training requirements of the UK construction industry and
provides a consensus view of the current and future skills training needs. The
CSN provides national and regional sector intelligence based upon robust data
and analysis of capacity, productivity and skills. The labour market
intelligence model developed has also been used to test scenarios to assist
with future planning. Labour market information systems also
serve to provide long-term signals to inform learners, guidance counsellors and
public employment services to make/advise on qualified training decisions. Key points for Member States: ·
Employers
and employees are supported in a dynamic interaction with VET providers,
providing information on future trends and understanding of value chain
dynamics; ·
VET
providers are supported in building the capacity and the flexibility to react
to the needs expressed. The critical factor is functioning links between them
and businesses; ·
"Brokerage"
services are put in place to enable communication and formulation of messages
between businesses and VET; ·
System
level, technology and structural changes are monitored and transmitted to
curricula development in initial VET. e) Provide incentives for VET providers
and mainstream VET excellence VET excellence has not yet been visible
in the EU. The lack of mechanisms to promote, communicate and reward excellence
may impede extra efforts of VET providers and their staff as well as hinder a
mainstreaming of VET excellence. For instance, qualifications systems are in
general based on minimum requirements rather than rewarding exceptional
performance. As shown in the examples from Finland,
the Netherlands and France, quality assurance mechanisms which are being
currently put in place (based on European Quality Assurance Framework in VET[64])
need to be complemented by a mix of incentives to VET providers (financial,
performance based funding and awards) to stimulate and reward excellence as
well as promote mainstreaming and scaling up into the whole VET system. In a
broader context, benefits of high quality of VET systems should be communicated
to a wide public (see the examples of Germany and Euro/WorldSkills). Finland has implemented since 2002 a
performance based financing scheme which encourages VET institutions to achieve
results in relation to employability of students, reducing drop outs and higher
staff performance.[65]
In the Netherlands every year a prize is awarded to an institution that promotes innovative
models in vocational education. The winning institution receives a grant of 2.5
million euro. In France the label ‘lycée des metiers’ is awarded to VET
schools which demonstrate excellence regarding certain indicators such as local
and regional partnerships, students’ study and career guidance, openness to
different groups or learners and a varied yet coherent offer of training
opportunities[66]. Euroskills
and WorldSkills[67] are international skills
competition which provide a means for exchange and comparison of European and
world-class competency standards in the industrial trades and service sectors.
They support the recognition of the highest achievements in traditional trade
and craft skills along with the newer technology multi-skilled vocations. In 2011,
the German Federal Ministry for Education and Research has started an
image campaign ‘Berufliche Bildung – Praktisch unschlagbar’ (VET – practically
invincible) directed towards parents, young people, employers, and employees.
It presents the VET route as highly attractive, offering good career prospects
for everybody, including young people with a migration background. The campaign
is supported by industry organisations[68]. Key points for Member States: ·
Incentives
are put in place to mainstream best practices in the form of financial support
(performance based funding) awards and labels; ·
Benefits
of high quality VET are identified and communicated to a wide public (skills
competitions, campaigns) and champions are recognised to stimulate further
improvements in the system. f) Maximise the leverage of EU
instruments Within the European cooperation process
in the field of VET, an ambitious agenda has been formulated in the Bruges
Communiqué, including efforts which support development towards VET excellence.
Member States, economic players and VET providers need to closely collaborate
on issues such as innovation, labour market relevance, work-based learning
schemes, quality assurance, and competence profiles of VET teachers and
trainers. A
European initiative: The European quality assurance reference framework for VET
(EQAVET) The
Recommendation on the establishment of a European quality assurance reference
framework for VET adopted in June 2009[69]
by the Council and the European Parliament, the so-called EQAVET
Recommendation, proposes guidelines along the lines presented above. It notably
provides a list of indicators for reaching an evidence based approach
including indicators measuring investment in teachers and trainers (indicator
2) and on mechanisms to identify training needs in the labour market (indicator
9). The
work undertaken within the EQAVET network of Member States representatives has
identified building blocks both at system and provider level in order to help
both levels to develop a quality approach towards excellence. The EQAVET
network has finally gathered all these elements in an online tool designed to
support national implementation processes and actions aligned to the European
quality assurance framework for vocational education and training (EQAVET
framework).The tool is accessible via internet on the EQAVET network website at
www.eqavet.eu and is free. A
survey undertaken in 2012 among the Member States shows that all Member States
have prepared / plan to prepare a national approach for developing a quality
culture for VET in line with the framework. The survey also shows that all
European VET systems except 2 have national quality standards for VET or
similar settings. The European Commission has launched a
number of sector-related initiatives, including Sector Skills Councils and
Sector Skills Alliances. These can be used to develop VET standards and ensure
that expected outcomes of VET are set and continuously improved in line with
the changing requirements of society and economy. Further potential clearly
exists for mutual learning based on the top-performing VET systems. EU-level Sector Skills Alliances The
Commission's proposal for a future programme "Erasmus for All"
foresees a new category of transnational partnerships called Sector Skills
Alliances (SSA) to promote cooperation between three categories of partners:
the world of education and training (VET providers); sector-specific expertise
(including social partners, sectoral federations, Chambers etc.); and bodies
involved in education and training systems (public or private bodies or
authorities).Drawing on evidence of skills needs and trends, SSA will work to
design and deliver joint curricula and methods which provide learners with the
skills required by the labour market. The overall goal is systemic impact on
training in the economic sectors concerned in order to increase their
competitiveness. One of the sectors which are facing a
specific skills challenge is healthcare. Demographic changes will have
significant consequences on the way healthcare is delivered. Increasing numbers
of elderly people with multiple chronic conditions will require new knowledge
in treatments, care models and use of technologies. New medical appliances and
diagnostic techniques requires technical know-how in addition clinical
knowledge. The Lifelong Learning Programme, with its Leonardo da Vinci strand,
plays an important role in developing and transferring innovation in training
(see below). Leonardo
da Vinci project tackling the skills challenge in the healthcare sector. Funded
under the EU's Leonardo da Vinci programme, the project "On-line Performance
Support Environment for Minimally Invasive Orthopaedic Surgery" aims to
meet the training requirements of medical staff which have arisen due to
developments in biomedical engineering and information and communications
technology. In particular, new developments in applications ranging from image
processing to robotics lead to new approaches to diagnosis (imageprocessing and
analysis) and minimally invasive surgery (arthroscopy). Source: http://www.adam-europe.eu/adam/project/view.htm?prj=5590 Key points for European Commission,
Member States, social partners and VET providers: ·
All key
stakeholders are implementing the VET modernisation agenda, including efforts
towards excellence and quality assurance, in order to become a world benchmark
in VET; ·
All
stakeholders are actively engaged in initiatives, including those at European
level, to develop high performance VET standards. g) Increase opportunities for
mobility in VET Mobility of VET students and staff can an
important vehicle to promote excellence in European context. The Leonardo da Vinci is the European
mobility programme dedicated to VET. By promoting cooperation between
organisations of different countries it aims to exchange best practices and to
improve the participants’ employability and acquisition of new skills. Since it
was created in 1995, the programme has enabled 860 000 people to have an
international learning mobility experience. The EU has set a target that the
Leonardo da Vinci programme should increase work and training placements in
enterprises to 80 000 a year by 2013. Furthermore, by 2020, an EU average of at
least 6 % of 18-34 year olds with an initial vocational education and training
qualification should have had an initial VET-related study or training period
(including work placements) abroad lasting a minimum of two weeks, or less if
documented by Europass (Council conclusions on Learning mobility)[70]. Key points for European Commission,
Member States, social partners and VET providers[71]: ·
All stakeholders encourage a greater number of
I-VET students and VET professionals to participate in transnational mobility; ·
Local and regional authorities, as well as VET
providers, develop an internationalisation culture and internationalisation
strategies, including cross-border mobility; ·
All stakeholders address legal and
administrative obstacles related to the transnational mobility of apprentices
and trainees; ·
Professional chambers, business organisations
and other relevant organisations are encouraged to support the host and sending
enterprises in providing appropriate conditions for apprentices and trainees in
transnational mobility; ·
Authorities ensure the provision of language
learning and intercultural competences in VET curricula; ·
All stakeholders make optimal use of other EU
tools (e.g. EQF, EQAVET, Europass) for enhancing the mutual recognition of
qualifications and competences.
4.3.
Delivering VET excellence: connecting VET
providers and engaging enterprises
Four main areas of action need to be
taken forward by VET providers and companies to deliver VET excellence: a)
VET
providers as active partners and networkers b)
VET
providers' ability to respond to the skills challenge c) Professional development of
VET teachers d) Engaging companies in
continuing training a)
VET providers as active partners and networkers Exploiting the potential of VET is not
just a matter of matching VET supply to a given demand. It requires a dynamic
and fluid interaction between VET and other players within the regional
innovation system and the local industry base. It requires a deep understanding
of the factors which drive competitiveness, stimulate innovation and improve
productivity inside companies. This can be achieved only if VET providers are
involved in networks and partnership with concrete firms. This is one of the
essential elements of VET excellence which can contribute to smart and
sustainable growth. The
example from the Netherlands shows how VET providers can be part of networks
in their economic context and engaged in vertical (E&T providers) and
horizontal partnerships (economic and political players). More generally, these
partnerships can take various forms; work-based learning, co-location,
technology diffusion, virtual demonstration centres and cross-disciplinary and
multi-level partnerships. They include partners such as chambers and local
development agencies to address SMEs' challenges in advanced human resource
practices. These partnerships should be increasingly of an international
nature. Alfa
College in the Netherlands has set up regional strategic alliances with industry and
regional policy makers. Beyond student and teacher placements, cooperation with
industry focuses on product and process innovation, and on how to translate
these into competences that students can acquire. The college works closely
with industry on the curriculum to determine what kind of competences will be
needed in the region in the coming years. The college has also established
cooperation with other VET providers (across disciplines), in the framework of
clusters that include SMEs, employers, VET providers. There is for instance one
cluster on tourism and one cluster on care. VET institutions can play a major role in
technology diffusion, in particular for SMEs, making the case for instance
regarding the benefits of green technologies for business. Schools that have
decided to focus their core competences on the latest technologies may also be
perceived as attractive partners by technological suppliers within a given
field. This may offer opportunities for investment by technology suppliers in
joint initiatives to establish Centres of Excellence. The networking aspect concerns not only
cooperation between VET training centres and businesses but also the
development of cross-disciplinary and multi-level partnerships with other
education and training providers as demonstrated by the example from France. "Compagnons
du devoir" in France run projects through which learners from VET and Universities
learn from each other. The institution has partnerships with higher education
institutions (Grandes écoles) and universities and this cooperation is seen as
a very innovative aspect of the education approach. In 2011, the competition
“Innover ensemble” (let’s innovate together) [72] gathered
teams of six young people in the leather goods trade. Each team had two young
people from a design school, two young people from a management/business
pathway in the French Fashion Institute and two future bag makers from
"compagnons du devoir". They had six months to create a new product
together. Teachers, trainers and students from one
professional field should cooperate with those from other fields (and from
other levels of education if relevant) through for example common project work.
In practice, professionals with VET qualifications work with professionals with
other VET or higher education qualifications. In order for them to work
effectively they need an understanding of each other's professions and their
constraints. This can be gained already in initial training by encouraging
cross-sectoral and cross-institutional projects. Key
points for VET providers: ·
VET
providers are active in networks, both "vertically" with partners
such as economic development agencies, chambers, associations, technology
centres, business support services and "horizontally" with other
E&T providers;
·
VET
providers play an active part in technology diffusion. b)
VET providers' ability to respond to the skills challenge VET providers need to deliver the core
competences required in the economic context, while also promoting flexibility
and adaptability of learners in terms of learning environments, application of
knowledge, and multi-disciplinary teams. VET providers should be able to adapt
to the skills needs expressed by employers. A specific programme from Wales, which provides an example of how to strengthen the capacity of
training providers to react to the needs of labour market, is described below. Delivering
Low Carbon Skills in Wales is an ESF and Welsh government funded programme to enhance
the evidence base for low carbon skills and support the development of skills
and capacity in the further education sector in Wales. A key component of
this programme was the delivery of a set of pilot training courses aimed at
developing the capacity of the training providers to deliver low carbon
training for the built environment workforce, up-skill the built environment
workforce in Wales, and test employer demand for up-skilling their workforce
with low carbon skills. The programmes offered flexible qualifications
able to provide a balance of technical and generic competences by adopting a
modular approach with optional modules or additional units to broaden
understanding of sustainable principles and operations, and sales and customer
service. A suite of ‘Train the Trainer’ courses which aimed to build the
capacity of training providers to deliver courses in low carbon built
environment was also established early on. Companies, as providers of work-based
VET, should focus on the combination of specialised skills with process skills,
cross-functional skills, social skills, self-management skills and
problem-solving in order to support innovation. They should increasingly provide forms of
higher VET to respond to the need for advanced vocational skills (see Annex
1 for country specific developments in the area of higher VET). In terms of
supporting sustainable growth, VET providers need to deliver a mix of generic
and technical skills ("hybrid skills"), shape "green
attitudes" of VET learners and increase the offer of CVET to enable a
topping-up of green skills. Key
points for VET providers and enterprises: ·
VET
institutions deliver the core competences required in the local economic
context, while promoting flexibility and adaptability of learners, in terms of
learning environments, application of knowledge, and multi-disciplinary teams; ·
Work-based
learning is explicitly recognised as a learning environment for employee-driven
innovation; ·
Enterprises
actively engage with VET providers to test new training approaches that strike
a balance between job-specific and transversal skills/competences; ·
VET
institutions provide VET at higher than upper secondary level in the context of
regional economic development as well as work-based learning in higher
education. c) Professional development of VET
teachers Teacher qualifications and competences
remain a major issue to achieve VET excellence. As illustrated by the example
from Austria, prior work experience and connection with the industry are
key elements which improve the quality of teaching in VET. In-company
traineeships in innovative SMEs (example from the Netherlands) can be an
effective way of keeping teachers’ competences up-to-date with technological
development. One of
the features of Universities of applied sciences in Austria is that the teaching is delivered by teaching staff that combines a background in VET
with experience in research. Furthermore all teaching staff has to have prior
work experience and a connection with the industry. Teaching also includes
external interventions from businesses. In the Alfa
College in the Netherlands, teachers have to undertake in-company
traineeships for a minimum of 40 hours per year. These take place in innovative
SMEs, in the workplaces where their learners are, and which are connected to
the VET institute. Such work experience allows teaching staff to provide a
“lifelong” learning perspective to their students. These traineeships are also
very important to see how teachers are able to connect to other colleagues, and
the extent to which they are able to apply their knowledge to another context.
During the traineeships, teachers are put into a variety of contexts, taking them
out of their ‘comfort zone’ into positions that they may be less familiar with
in order to give them a new perspective on the professional field in which they
teach. The college has the possibility to financially reward teachers’
commitment and motivation and also to offer them career progression
opportunities. VET institutions aiming for excellence
need to rethink teaching and learning practices to actively promote skills
development which is conducive to innovation. Innovation goes hand-in-hand with
practice and thus cannot be limited to the teaching of innovation as a subject.
It is just as important to learn innovatively as to learn about innovation.
Rewarding excellence should be a system feature to motivate those teachers and
trainers who go beyond the minimum standards and implement innovative teaching
and training methods. One of the solutions to improve the
technological capacity of the schools and teachers can be to establish centres
of excellence such as the CIVs in the Netherlands (see the box above).
In this way several institutions can share the costs of investment in technical
facilities; a joint location with firms also offers opportunities to access
advanced technologies for training purposes. As shown by the practice from Spain,
the Basque region, another solution may be to make use of ICT based
simulations, which are increasingly available for training purposes in for
example automotive, manufacturing and health professions. Simulators have also
drastically brought down costs and improved the effectiveness of training in
the different modes of transport. Schools may also partner with firms in
innovative ways to update the technological capabilities of the teaching
workforce. TKNIKA
(Centre for Innovation and Vocational Teachers Training) in the Basque region has run a project with hybrid
cars in which a group of teachers have been working for two years half time in
their respective schools and half time in companies to understand the complex
technological base underlying hybrid cars. This is the basis for teaching
students about the design of hybrid cars, for example through the use of ICT
based simulations. To be able to do so, the teachers had to acquire a deep
understanding of the design process and technology. Key
points for VET providers: ·
VET
institutions organise regular company training for VET teachers (teachers'
traineeships); ·
Teachers
have a broader understanding of economic development, technological changes and
innovation; ·
VET
institutions have the means to reward excellence of VET teachers and motivate
those who go beyond the minimum standards and implement innovative teaching and
training methods. d) Engaging companies in continuing
training Companies' active engagement in
partnerships with VET providers is important for the relevance of initial VET.
For continuing VET their role is even more central. The rapid progress of technology requires
that the skills of the existing workforce are constantly updated. [73]
Therefore companies which invest in and actively encourage learning of their
personnel can generate important returns[74], including through
lower job absenteeism, lower turnover of personnel, greater productivity and
innovation capacity and the ability to offer products and services of higher
value. Furthermore, learning and innovation support one another.[75]
Structured learning at the work place is
today far from being the rule in European companies, but good examples do
exist. Sector and enterprise-led partnerships, such as Skillnets from Ireland
(see the Staff Working Document "Partnership and flexible pathways
for lifelong learning" ) or the skills training cluster from
Austria, for example, have helped SMEs share knowledge on challenges and to
develop training that can benefit all companies involved. Experience has also
shown that the majority of adult learners prefer learning in the context of
their daily work, and that traditional education provision for adults with low
basic skills is unattractive, with a high risk of drop out. Therefore, it might
be both strategically useful and efficient for companies to facilitate – when
applicable in partnerships with VET providers - the acquisition of basic
skills and transversal competences in the work place. The
Qualifizierungsverbund approach (skills training cluster) in Austria has been set up to support independent enterprises to jointly develop (at least
3 in each cluster) tailored skills training schemes for their staff and
coordinate its implementation. The commitment from firms to train is
essentially driven by the commitment to obtain and sustain relatively high
value-added positions in the market.[76]
A further driver is the need to create a stable working environment to retain
people within a particular firm or network of firms. If there is a high degree
of labour turnover, coupled with skill shortages, the nature of the social
contract within the network tends to break down: employers seek to retain their
own staff and prevent them, as far as possible, from leaving to join other
companies. This will negatively affect cooperative working among companies.
Therefore companies need to develop human resource policies, alongside the
continuing supply of training, to retain people, if not within a particular
firm, then at least within the network of firms. Although raising skill levels is crucial
for innovation and technological progress, it is also essential for those
skills to be effectively used by good management and human resource practices
within ‘high performance’ workplaces. The benefits of workplace training tend
to accrue when integrated within an overall bundle of innovative human resource
practices adopted by firms[77].
Several financing mechanisms have been set up to stimulate the demand for
continuing learning (see chapter 3 for a detailed analysis). Key elements for Member States and enterprises: ·
An
efficient combination of incentives, rights and obligations for all
stakeholders strengthens employers' engagement in continuing VET and boosts
participation of individuals, particularly from vulnerable groups ·
Enterprises,
particularly SMEs, engage in joint innovative training schemes, overcoming
barriers in investing in continuing VET
Annex - VET at levels higher than upper secondary programmes[78]
AT || Qualifications acquired in 5-year school-based VET programmes that provide access to higher education and labour market entitlements, have since long been considered equivalent to first diploma level in the context of the recognition directive. The Fachhochschul-programmes that were established in the 90ies intended as short –cycle tertiary-level non-university programmes (ISCED5B) have been converted to universities of applied science and ICSED 5A programmes awarding bachelor’s and also master’ s degrees. BE NL || At a post-secondary level, higher education institutions provide qualifications associated with Technological Specialisation Courses (CETs), leading to a Technological Specialisation Diploma. By their nature and objectives, these qualifications are also short cycle programmes, with the main goal of preparing students for employment, but also providing preparation for, and access to, the first cycle. BE FR || Tertiary education encompasses university education, non-university higher education organised in the Hautes Écoles, and artistic higher education organised in the Art Schools (Ecoles supérieures des arts ; Higher Institutes of Architecture (Instituts supérieurs d’architecture) were integrated into universities by the Decree of 30 April 2009. Tertiary education studies may be either short (three or four years) or long- (four years at least). Both types are offered in the Hautes Écoles and Art Schools, whereas the Universities offer only long-type studies. CY || Establishment and operation of a New Modern Apprenticeship, for 2014. It will embrace young people between 14 and 25 at three apprenticeship levels (preparatory, core and post-secondary). Establishment of Vocational Schools of Lifelong Learning. The non-university tertiary institutions train professionals, such as technical and engineering staff, nurses, forestry workers, police officers, as well as managers, etc., in order to cater for the needs of local industry. Short cycle higher education (SCHE) is organized by the State, by private providers or by professional organisations. It can also be provided by the State. It is provided within vocational / professional colleges or within further education colleges. It is subsidized by the State. SCHE can last between one and three years and is a combination of practice and theory. CZ || In Czech Republic a double track system exist which was created by upgrading professional schools or by merging specialised institutions into multi-faculty colleges. Private colleges also emerged. Providers of tertiary programmes outside the universities offer programmes mainly at EQF levels 5 – 6. DE || Germany has introduced a double track system (separation between traditional academic higher education and technical/professional higher education). The tertiary sector includes, first and foremost, the 391 state-maintained and state-recognised different types of institutions of higher education such as Universitäten (universities) and equivalent institutions of higher education (Technische Hochschulen/Technische Universitäten, Pädagogische Hochschulen, theological colleges et al), Colleges of art and music and Fachhochschulen (incl. Verwaltungsfachhochschulen). Berufsakademien (professional academies) form part of the tertiary sector and combine academic training at a Studienakademie (study institution) with practical professional training in a training establishment, thus constituting a duales System (dual system). The companies bear the costs of on-the-job training and pay the students a wage, which is also received during the theoretical part of the training at the study institution. The Berufsakademieen or “duale Hochschulen” (Dual universities) are also considered as institutions of higher education. They are recognized by the state. The study lasts 3 years, whereby theory and practice constantly alternate. DK || Denmark has in place a double track system (separation between traditional academic higher education and technical/professional higher education) There are ten professional academies (e.g. nursery, engineering, etc.) and vocational colleges that are in charge of post-secondary VET. Short cycle higher education is organized at national level in Denmark. It is provided and subsidized by the state but organized in vocational / professional colleges or in further education colleges. SCHE leads to a short professional education not necessarily linked to previous studies. EE || Professional HE may be provided by: • applied HE institution (rakenduskõrgkool); • university college (ülikooli kolledž); • VET institution (kutseõppeasutus) that offers post-secondary (non tertiary) vocational education curricula. ES || Advanced vocational training (ISCED 5B) is offered in centros de referencia nacional (national reference schools) or in centros integrados de formación profesional (integrated vocational training schools). Short cycle higher education (SCHE) is provided by the state (the regional autonomias) , by private education providers and / or by the authorities in collaboration with any of the above. It is subsidized by the state or by the regional authorities (autonomias). SCHE is a short professional education not necessarily linked to previous studies (e.g. nursing). In order to study advanced vocational training, it is necessary to hold the Bachiller certificate. Candidates may also be required to have taken certain specific subjects in the Bachillerato related to the vocational studies they wish to pursue. It has a variable length, though it usually takes two years. FI || Finland has in place a double track system with HEIs offering a traditional academic education and Polytechnic institutes offering a more practical education. The qualifications within VET in Finland range from vocational upper secondary qualifications (ISCED 3) to further and specialist vocational qualifications (ISCED 4). Professionally oriented education is available at higher education level (Polytechnic degree - Master level). There is no short cycle higher education in Finland. FR || France has a segmented tertiary education system which combines universities, grandes ecoles, but also other forms of vocational provision (see below). The French system offers various short cycle higher professional education (SCHE) which are clearly vocation in nature – these are: - DUT: diplôme universitaire de technologie (technological university degree). - BTS : brevet de technicien supérieur (higher technician’s diploma), - BTSA : Brevet de technicien supérieur agricole - DEUST : Diplôme d'études universitaires scientifiques et techniques - DMA : Diplôme des métiers d'art. 1. - TP : NIVEAU III Titre Professionnel. EL || Higher education in Greece consists of two tracks: the University sector (Universities, Polytechnics, Fine Arts Schools, the Open University) and the Technological sector (Technological Education Institutions (TEI) and the School of Pedagogic and Technological Education). There are also State Non-university Tertiary Institutes offering vocationally oriented courses of shorter duration (2 to 3 years) which operate under the authority of other Ministries. HU || Post-secondary VET has expanded since 1998. The goal of launching advanced level VET was twofold: strengthen link between higher education and the economy; increase the number of young people with higher education qualifications. Recent changes concern the introduction of new, competence based, modular Higher Level Vocational Training (HLVT or Short cycle higher education- SCHE) programmes. This form of SCHE education and training is spreading fast in comparison with other European countries, led by the demand of industry. Through the modular system different programmes have to be linked and credit points have to be accepted. IE || Ireland has double track system (separation between traditional academic higher education and technical/professional higher education). SCHE is an integral part of educational provision in Ireland (outside the universities) and, as a consequence, SCHE courses are provided in various areas of studies but the bulk of provision is in the area of applied humanities, business, science, engineering and technology. Most Short cycle higher education programmes (SCHE) are organized within the institutes of technology and independent registered providers. IC || Post-secondary education and training is still fairly limited, but growing. In some of the higher education institutions a diploma or certificate is awarded after one or two years’ study in various subjects, such as pedagogy, gerontology, business and languages. The diploma courses are short, practically / professionally oriented and theory-based. It is not common for these courses to be combined with placement (in industry). Iceland also has post-secondary education at level 5 of the NQF or of the EQF. This is organized by some comprehensive schools, which next to other courses organize post-secondary non-tertiary programmes, such as programmes to educate master craftsmen. IT || Higher technical education institutes (ITS) and higher technical education and training (IFTS) offer post-secondary vocational education. ITS are specific types of foundations composed by public institutions and private stakeholders (enterprises, etc.) and have to be seen as specialised technological schools of excellence training high level technicians and stimulating technological transfer to industries. IFTS aims at a quick insertion of students into the labour market and at an upgrading of skills for those who are already employed. Although higher technical education is considered to be post-secondary non- tertiary education, the Italian Ministry regards some of the qualifications issued by these institutions as equivalent to the French BTS which is clearly situated in higher education at level 5 of the EQF for LLL. In addition, credits earned can partly be used for courses at university or non-university higher education. In the Veneto region, development of applied Ph.D. in a higher apprenticeship scheme is currently being experimented. LT || Specific colleges deliver higher level VET education (ISCED 5B) of 3-4 years duration (leading to a professional bachelor degree or vocational qualification). There is no Short cycle higher education (SCHE) in Lithuania yet but there is post-secondary education having no formal links with higher education. Lithuania does have the intention of organizing SCHE in the future. LU || Higher VET education consists of: - Advanced technician’s diploma (of 120 ECTS) in a private or public institute of higher education (BTS). The objective of the BTS is to prepare for a profession, the BTS mentioning the professional area concerned. - Master craftsmanship degree. The objective of the University of Luxembourg is to increase, in the future, the range of vocational training programmes ensuring that these vocational training programmes include a significant proportion of workplace learning. LV || There are various professional higher study programmes: the first level professional higher education or college education (i.e. non university type) (ISCED 4) and the second level professional higher education or university education (ISCED 5). Short Cycle higher education (SCHE) is provided by the state and private education providers. It is subsidized by the state or by other organisations. It is provided within the universities, within colleges and within vocational / professional colleges. SCHE is a short professional education not linked to previous studies. MT || National Action Plan for 2008-2010 intended to develop professional degrees at level 6, implementing Work based learning courses. Short cycle higher education (SCHE) in Malta is provided by the state or by private education providers. It is organized in universities and in vocational / professional colleges. It is subsidized by the state or by industry or jointly by both of them. The duration of full-time SCHE is two years and students earn between 90 and 120 ECTS credits. SCHE is mainly a preparation for degree studies and is organized mainly on a full-time basis but part-time is also possible. NL || The Netherlands has a two track system (separation between traditional academic higher education and technical/professional higher education). Since 2006, various higher professional education bachelor programmes (of at least 120 ECTS) have been created. New Associate degree programmes that will be run by the universities of applied sciences in collaboration with upper secondary VET are being developed. The legislation states that Short cycle higher education is a formal degree (Associate degree) within the professional Bachelor degree, that it has at least 120 ECTS. SCHE is clearly situated at level 5 of the EQF. Level 5 belongs to the system of higher education and level 4 is part of secondary vocational education. NO || Norway has double track system in higher education (separation between traditional academic higher education and technical/professional higher education). Short cycle higher education (SCHE) takes two years (within the BA) and is part of the universities or the university colleges. There are some integrated five to five and half year master degrees and some professional study programmes that last 6 years. In addition, there are some master programmes of less than two years duration and some 4-year bachelor’s degrees. Tertiary education also includes vocational colleges (ISCED 4) and practical courses of training with duration of half a year to two years as alternatives to higher education. PL || In Poland has a double track system of higher education. This was created by upgrading professional schools or by merging specialised institutions into multi-faculty colleges. Private colleges also emerged. Providers of tertiary programmes outside the universities offer programmes mainly at EQF levels 5 – 6. Post-secondary schools are not considered to be higher education. Post-secondary schools enable their students to acquire vocational qualifications at the level of secondary, technical or vocational, education. Training in such schools takes no longer than 2.5 years and it depends on the occupation as specified in the Classification of Occupations. PT || Portugal has a double track system of higher education: Polytechnic education which concentrates on professionally driven vocational and advanced technical training vs. Traditional university education. Polytechnic institutions provide technological specialisation courses (CET), which are technical, practical and vocational in nature. Measures are in place to increase the attractiveness for Polytechnic education. RO || There is no Short cycle higher education (SCHE) in Romania but there is post-secondary education which has no formal links with Higher Education. Currently post-secondary education corresponds to level 5 EQF, but is not yet decided if some of post-secondary education programs are at higher levels than level 5 EQF. Furthermore the country doesn’t have the intention to organize SCHE in the near future. SE || Higher Vocational education programmes (Yrkeshögskoleutbildning) provide vocational education and training at the post-secondary level outside higher education institutions and are designed to meet the actual needs of the labour market. Therefore, students are given permission for a limited time and then they have to apply in competition with others if they want to continue. HVE programmes normally consist of two years of full-time study, but there are also shorter and longer programmes. Courses must be organised by state universities or colleges, Municipalities or county councils, and individual natural or legal persons. The education provider may organise courses in partnership with others. SK || Slovakia is adapting its legislation to the introduction of a new kind of higher professional study. In this kind of study the secondary technical schools will provide higher professional education. The term Short-type courses is used in Slovakia for bachelor’s studies and lead to the bakalár (Bachelor) qualification. This diploma allows students either to continue the master study level or to enter the labour market. ISCED 5B programmes are currently strongly linked to secondary ISCED 3A programmes and can be seen as an expansion of secondary studies. SI || Short cycle higher education is organised by the State or by private providers (approximately 50% by each). SCHE is provided at higher vocational colleges (višje strokovne šole) and sometimes also at professional colleges (visoke strokovne šole) as self standing institutions. Occasionally courses offer off-campus in the work place. SCHE is organised in many fields of study. UK || Foundation degrees are vocationally oriented Higher Education courses below the level of a Bachelor’s degree, requiring the equivalent of two years’ full time study. They are designed in conjunction with employers and intended to provide individuals with the knowledge, understanding and skills relevant to their employment. Foundation Degrees are awarded by institutions with Degree Awarding Powers, but can be taught or delivered by private providers, industry, professional bodies, public colleges or any other organisation. The awarding body is responsible for quality assurance of the qualification. There is the intention to foster the development of Foundation Degrees (introduced in 2001). [1] European
Commission (2010). The Bruges Communiqué. Available
from Internet: http://ec.europa.eu/education/lifelong-learning-policy/doc/vocational/bruges_en.pdf [2] This part is based on a report prepared for the European
Commission, Directorate General for Education and Training, by ICF GHK and
Danish Technological Institute [3] Cedefop, 2012, From education to working life. The labour market
outcomes of vocational education and training. See: http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/EN/publications/20448.aspx
[4] Today 50% of young people in Europe at upper secondary level are
enrolled in vocational training. The rate in individual countries varies
between 13 % in Cyprus and 77% in Austria. For more VET statistics see http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/EN/statistics-and-indicators/input-indicators.aspx
[5] European Commission (2010c) [6] Cedefop (2011). Vocational
Education and Training at Higher Qualification Levels. Luxembourg: Publications Office (Research Paper 15). Available
from Internet: http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/EN/Files/5515_en.pdf [7]
http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2012/02/community_colleges_budget.html [8] Council of Australian
Governments (2008). National Agreement for Skills and Workforce Development. Available from Internet: http://www.federalfinancialrelations.gov.au/content/national_agreements/skills_workforce/skills_agreement_new.pdf [9] Source: English
translation of the Outline of China’s National Plan for Medium and Long-term
Education Reform and Development (2010-2020), https://www.aei.gov.au/news/newsarchive/2010/documents/china_education_reform_pdf.pdf [10] Assistance shall be
available to turn some secondary vocational schools into model schools for
vocational education reform, or into schools that excel in particular fields.
Support shall be provided to the construction of exemplary vocational colleges.
Source: English translation of the Outline of China’s National Plan for Medium
and Long-term Education Reform and Development (2010-2020) [11] Van Ark, B.; O’Mahony, M. and
Timmer, M. (2008). The Productivity Gap between Europe and the United States: Trends and Causes in Journal
of Economic Perspectives—Volume 22, Number 1—Winter 2008—Pages 25–44. Available from
Internet: http://www.indexmeasures.ca/dc2008/papers/vanark_productivity.pdf [12] COM(2012) 582: A stronger European Industry for Growth and Economic
Recovery. [13] Hirsch-Kreinsen, H.; Jacobson, D.
(eds.) (2008).
Innovation in Low-Tech Firms and Industries, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, UK; Northampton , MA, USA. [14] Cedefop (2012a), Sectoral
perspectives on the benefits of vocational education and training. See: http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/EN/publications/19891.aspx [15] Shaffer, D.; Wright, D.
(2010). A new paradigm for economic development. The Nelson Rockefeller
Institute. Available from Internet: http://www.rockinst.org/pdf/education/2010-03-18-A_New_Paradigm.pdf [16] http://www.delni.gov.uk/es/north-carolina-bioscience
[17]http://www.delni.gov.uk/index/successthroughskills/skills-and-training-programmes-2/assured-skills-programme.htm
[18] Cedefop and ILO (2010), Skills
for green jobs - European synthesis report. See:
http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/EN/publications/16439.aspx [19] Eurofound (2009). Greening
the European economy: Responses and initiatives by Member States and social
partners. Dublin, 2009, EF/09/72/EN. Available from
Internet: http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/eiro/studies/tn0908019s/tn0908019s.htm [20] For individuals, Adult
Education Survey, cited in Dohmen and Timmermann (2010) Financing Adult
learning at times of crisis, and for companies, Eurostat, Continuing Vocational
Training Survey 4, reference year 2010, preliminary results. OECD (2004), Co-financing lifelong
learning: towards a systemic approach, Paris: OECD Publishing. [21] Oosterbeek, EENEE report on adult learning [22] Eurostat. Continuing Vocational Training Survey 4, reference year
2010, preliminary results. [23] CEDEFOP (2009), Using tax incentives to promote education and
training, Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European
Communities; CEDEFOP (2009), Sharing the costs of vocational education and
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Communities; CEDEFOP (2009), Sharing the costs of vocational education and
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crisis [30] Yves Urieta (2011), 40 ans de formation professionnelle: bilan et
perspectives. [31] UKES (2010), Personal learning accounts: building on lessons
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crisis [34] An increase in the demand of lifelong learning from individuals and
employers having benefited from public support that can be judged to have
occurred anyway, in the absence of any assistance, is termed a deadweight loss. [35] Falch and Oosterbeek for EENEE (2011) Financing Lifelong Learning:
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– Deutsches Instutut für Erwachsenenbildung, a forthcoming study commissioned
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of loans in financing vocational education and training in Europe, final report
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training, Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European
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training: An analysis of schemes in the newer EU Member States. [46] Dohmen and Timmermann (2010) Financing Adult learning at times of crisis [47] Falch and Oosterbeeck for ENEE (2011) Financing Lifelong Learning:
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crisis [51] Johanson, R. (2009). A Review of National
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training, Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European
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2010-2012. Progress towards the Bruges Communiqué. The information is subject to
validation by Member States' Directors General for Vocational Training to be made
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Out Change: Systemic Innovation in Vocational Education and Training. OECD,
Paris. [60] Leney,
T. et al. (2004) Achieving the Lisbon goal: The contribution of VET. Final report
to the European. Commission. European Commission [61] For a thorough discussion on
skills utilisation see Skills Australia (2011). Skills utilisation literature
review. Available from Internet: http://www.skillsaustralia.gov.au/better-use-of-skills/skills-utilisation-list/documents/skillsutilisationliteraturereview.pdf [62]COM(2010) 553 final. Regional
Policy contributing to smart growth in Europe 2020 http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docoffic/official/communic/smart_growth/comm2010_553_en.pdf [63] European
Commission (2010). The Bruges Communiqué. Available
from Internet: http://ec.europa.eu/education/lifelong-learning-policy/doc/vocational/bruges_en.pdf [64] Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council of
18 June 2009 on the establishment of a European Quality Assurance
Reference Framework for Vocational Education and Training [65]http://www.ammatillinenkoulutus.com/upload/images/muut_kuvat/pdf/alakoht/English/Vocational_education_%20and_training_in_Finland.pdf
[66] http://eduscol.education.fr/cid47596/le-label-lycee-des-metiers.html
[67] http://www.worldskills.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1178&Itemid=817
[68] http://www.praktisch-unschlagbar.de/
[69] OJ C155, 8.7.2009, p. 1. [70] http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/educ/126380.pdf [71] Based on European Commission
(2010). The Bruges Communiqué. Available from
Internet: http://ec.europa.eu/education/lifelong-learning-policy/doc/vocational/bruges_en.pdf [72] http://www.defi-innover-ensemble.com/
[73] Cedefop briefing note: Preventing skill obsolescence. Rapid labour
market changes leave too many workers at risk of losing their skills. Forthcoming. [74] "Renditen betrieblicher Weiterbildung in Österreich",
Arbeitskammer Österreich available at: http://wien.arbeiterkammer.at/bilder/d93/StudieWeiterbildung.pdf [75] See e.g. Cedefop’s study on Adult learning in the Workplace: Skill
development to promote innovation in enterprises [76] Cedefop (2012a), Sectoral perspectives on the benefits of
vocational education and training. See: http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/EN/publications/19891.aspx [77] Cedefop (2011b), The impact of vocational
education and training on company performance -
http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/EN/publications/19219.aspx;
Cedefop (2012b), Skill mismatch - The role of the
enterprise - http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/EN/publications/19658.aspx [78] For more information: CEDEFOP's county descriptions on VET
systems; study on level 5 qualifications in Europe by EURASHE: http://files.eurashe.eu/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/SCHE-in-Europe-long-version-with-cover140311.pdf?918048