02008R0440 — EN — 18.05.2017 — 007.001

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►C1  COMMISSION REGULATION (EC) No 440/2008 of 30 May 2008 laying down test methods pursuant to Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council on the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) (Text with EEA relevance)  ◄ (OJ L 142 31.5.2008, p. 1)

Amended by:

		Official Journal
		No	page	date
►M1	COMMISSION REGULATION (EC) No 761/2009 of 23 July 2009	L 220	1	24.8.2009
M2	COMMISSION REGULATION (EU) No 1152/2010 of 8 December 2010	L 324	13	9.12.2010
►M3	COMMISSION REGULATION (EU) No 640/2012 of 6 July 2012	L 193	1	20.7.2012
►M4	COMMISSION REGULATION (EU) No 260/2014 of 24 January 2014	L 81	1	19.3.2014
►M5	COMMISSION REGULATION (EU) No 900/2014 of 15 July 2014	L 247	1	21.8.2014
►M6	COMMISSION REGULATION (EU) 2016/266 of 7 December 2015	L 54	1	1.3.2016
►M7	COMMISSION REGULATION (EU) 2017/735 of 14 February 2017	L 112	1	28.4.2017

Corrected by:

►C1	Corrigendum, OJ L 143, 3.6.2008, p.  55 (440/2008)

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▼C1

COMMISSION REGULATION (EC) No 440/2008

of 30 May 2008

laying down test methods pursuant to Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council on the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH)

(Text with EEA relevance)

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Article 1

The test methods to be applied for the purposes of Regulation 1907/2006/EC are set out in the Annex to this Regulation.

Article 2

The Commission shall review, where appropriate, the test methods contained in this Regulation with a view to replacing, reducing or refining testing on vertebrate animals.

Article 3

All references to Annex V to Directive 67/548/EEC shall be construed as references to this Regulation.

Article 4

This Regulation shall enter into force on the day following its publication in the Official Journal of the European Union.

It shall apply from 1 June 2008.

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ANNEX

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Note:

Before using any of the following test methods to test a multi-constituent substance (MCS), a substance of unknown or variable composition, complex reaction product or biological material (UVCB), or a mixture and where its applicability for the testing of MCS, UVCB, or mixtures is not indicated in the respective test method, it should be considered whether the method is adequate for the intended regulatory purpose.

If the test method is used for the testing of a MCS, UVCB or mixture, sufficient information on its composition should be made available, as far as possible, e.g. by the chemical identity of its constituents, their quantitative occurrence, and relevant properties of the constituents.

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PART A: METHODS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

TABLE OF CONTENTS
A.1.	MELTING/FREEZING TEMPERATURE
A.2.	BOILING TEMPERATURE
A.3.	RELATIVE DENSITY
A.4.	VAPOUR PRESSURE
A.5.	SURFACE TENSION
A.6.	WATER SOLUBILITY
A.8.	PARTITION COEFFICIENT
A.9.	FLASH-POINT
A.10.	FLAMMABILITY (SOLIDS)
A.11.	FLAMMABILITY (GASES)
A.12.	FLAMMABILITY (CONTACT WITH WATER)
A.13.	PYROPHORIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS
A.14.	EXPLOSIVE PROPERTIES
A.15.	AUTO-IGNITION TEMPERATURE (LIQUIDS AND GASES)
A.16.	RELATIVE SELF-IGNITION TEMPERATURE FOR SOLIDS
A.17.	OXIDISING PROPERTIES (SOLIDS)
A.18.	NUMBER — AVERAGE MOLECULAR WEIGHT AND MOLECULAR WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF POLYMERS
A.19.	LOW MOLECULAR WEIGHT CONTENT OF POLYMERS
A.20.	SOLUTION/EXTRACTION BEHAVIOUR OF POLYMERS IN WATER
A.21.	OXIDISING PROPERTIES (LIQUIDS)
A.22.	LENGTH WEIGHTED GEOMETRIC MEAN DIAMETER OF FIBRES
A.23.	PARTITION COEFFICIENT (1-OCTANOL/WATER): SLOW-STIRRING METHOD
A.24.	PARTITION COEFFICIENT (N-OCTANOL/WATER), HIGH PERFORMANCELIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY (HPLC) METHOD
A.25.	DISSOCIATION CONSTANTS IN WATER (TITRATION METHOD — SPECTROPHOTOMETRIC METHOD — CONDUCTOMETRIC METHOD)

A.1.   MELTING/FREEZING TEMPERATURE

1.   METHOD

The majority of the methods described are based on the OECD Test Guideline (1). The fundamental principles are given in references (2) and (3).

1.1.   INTRODUCTION

The methods and devices described are to be applied for the determination of the melting temperature of substances, without any restriction with respect to their degree of purity.

The selection of the method is dependent on the nature of the substance to be tested. In consequence the limiting factor will be according to, whether or not the substance can be pulverised easily, with difficulty, or not at all.

For some substances, the determination of the freezing or solidification temperature is more appropriate and the standards for these determinations have also been included in this method.

Where, due to the particular properties of the substance, none of the above parameters can be conveniently measured, a pour point may be appropriate.

1.2.   DEFINITIONS AND UNITS

The melting temperature is defined as the temperature at which the phase transition from solid to liquid state occurs at atmospheric pressure and this temperature ideally corresponds to the freezing temperature.

As the phase transition of many substances takes place over a temperature range, it is often described as the melting range.

Conversion of units (K to oC)

t = T - 273,15

t

:

Celsius temperature, degree Celsius (oC)

T

:

thermodynamic temperature, kelvin (K)

1.3.   REFERENCE SUBSTANCES

Reference substances do not need to be employed in all cases when investigating a new substance. They should primarily serve to check the performance of the method from time to time and to allow comparison with results from other methods.

Some calibration substances are listed in the references (4).

1.4.   PRINCIPLE OF THE TEST METHOD

The temperature (temperature range) of the phase transition from the solid to the liquid state or from the liquid to the solid state is determined. In practice while heating/cooling a sample of the test substance at atmospheric pressure the temperatures of the initial melting/freezing and the final stage of melting/freezing are determined. Five types of methods are described, namely capillary method, hot stage methods, freezing temperature determinations, methods of thermal analysis, and determination of the pour point (as developed for petroleum oils).

In certain cases, it may be convenient to measure the freezing temperature in place of the melting temperature.

1.4.1.   Capillary method

1.4.1.1.   Melting temperature devices with liquid bath

A small amount of the finely ground substance is placed in a capillary tube and packed tightly. The tube is heated, together with a thermometer, and the temperature rise is adjusted to less than about 1 K/min during the actual melting. The initial and final melting temperatures are determined.

1.4.1.2.   Melting temperature devices with metal block

As described under 1.4.1.1, except that the capillary tube and the thermometer are situated in a heated metal block, and can be observed through holes in the block.

1.4.1.3.   Photocell detection

The sample in the capillary tube is heated automatically in a metal cylinder. A beam of light is directed through the substance, by way of a hole in the cylinder, to a precisely calibrated photocell. The optical properties of most substances change from opaque to transparent when they are melting. The intensity of light reaching the photocell increases and sends a stop signal to the digital indicator reading out the temperature of a platinum resistance thermometer located in the heating chamber. This method is not suitable for some highly coloured substances.

1.4.2.   Hot stages

1.4.2.1.   Kofler hot bar

The Kofler hot bar uses two pieces of metal of different thermal conductivity, heated electrically, with the bar designed so that the temperature gradient is almost linear along its length. The temperature of the hot bar can range from 283 to 573 K with a special temperature-reading device including a runner with a pointer and tab designed for the specific bar. In order to determine a melting temperature, the substance is laid, in a thin layer, directly on the surface of the hot bar. In a few seconds a sharp dividing line between the fluid and solid phase develops. The temperature at the dividing line is read by adjusting the pointer to rest at the line.

1.4.2.2.   Melt microscope

Several microscope hot stages are in use for the determination of melting temperatures with very small quantities of material. In most of the hot stages the temperature is measured with a sensitive thermocouple but sometimes mercury thermometers are used. A typical microscope hot stage melting temperature apparatus has a heating chamber which contains a metal plate upon which the sample is placed on a slide. The centre of the metal plate contains a hole permitting the entrance of light from the illuminating mirror of the microscope. When in use, the chamber is closed by a glass plate to exclude air from the sample area.

The heating of the sample is regulated by a rheostat. For very precise measurements on optically anisotropic substances, polarised light may be used.

1.4.2.3.   Meniscus method

This method is specifically used for polyamides.

The temperature at which the displacement of a meniscus of silicone oil, enclosed between a hot stage and a cover-glass supported by the polyamide test specimen, is determined visually.

1.4.3.   Method to determine the freezing temperature

The sample is placed in a special test tube and placed in an apparatus for the determination of the freezing temperature. The sample is stirred gently and continuously during cooling and the temperature is measured at suitable intervals. As soon as the temperature remains constant for a few readings this temperature (corrected for thermometer error) is recorded as the freezing temperature.

Supercooling must be avoided by maintaining equilibrium between the solid and the liquid phases.

1.4.4.   Thermal analysis

1.4.4.1   Differential thermal analysis (DTA)

This technique records the difference in temperatures between the substance and a reference material as a function of temperature, while the substance and reference material are subjected to the same controlled temperature programme. When the sample undergoes a transition involving a change of enthalpy, that change is indicated by an endothermic (melting) or exothermic (freezing) departure from the base line of the temperature record.

1.4.4.2   Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)

This technique records the difference in energy inputs into a substance and a reference material, as a function of temperature, while the substance and reference material are subjected to the same controlled temperature programme. This energy is the energy necessary to establish zero temperature difference between the substance and the reference material. When the sample undergoes a transition involving a change of enthalpy, that change is indicated by an endothermic (melting) or exothermic (freezing) departure from the base line of the heat flow record.

1.4.5.   Pour point

This method was developed for use with petroleum oils and is suitable for use with oily substances with low melting temperatures.

After preliminary heating, the sample is cooled at a specific rate and examined at intervals of 3 K for flow characteristics. The lowest temperature at which movement of the substance is observed is recorded as the pour point.

1.5.   QUALITY CRITERIA

The applicability and accuracy of the different methods used for the determination of the melting temperature/melting range are listed in the following table:

TABLE: APPLICABILITY OF THE METHODS

1.6.   DESCRIPTION OF THE METHODS

The procedures of nearly all the test methods have been described in international and national standards (see Appendix 1).

1.6.1.   Methods with capillary tube

When subjected to a slow temperature rise, finely pulverised substances usually show the stages of melting shown in figure 1.

Figure 1

During the determination of the melting temperature, the temperatures are recorded at the beginning of the melting and at the final stage.

1.6.1.1.   Melting temperature devices with liquid bath apparatus

Figure 2 shows a type of standardised melting temperature apparatus made of glass (JIS K 0064); all specifications are in millimeters.

A suitable liquid should be chosen. The choice of the liquid depends upon the melting temperature to be determined, e.g. liquid paraffin for melting temperatures no higher than 473 K, silicone oil for melting temperatures no higher than 573 K.

For melting temperatures above 523 K, a mixture consisting of three parts sulphuric acid and two parts potassium sulphate (in mass ratio) can be used. Suitable precautions should be taken if a mixture such as this is used.

Only those thermometers should be used which fulfil the requirements of the following or equivalent standards:

ASTM E 1-71, DIN 12770, JIS K 8001.

The dry substance is finely pulverised in a mortar and is put into the capillary tube, fused at one end, so that the filling level is approximately 3 mm after being tightly packed. To obtain a uniform packed sample, the capillary tube should be dropped from a height of approximately 700 mm through a glass tube vertically onto a watch glass.

The filled capillary tube is placed in the bath so that the middle part of the mercury bulb of the thermometer touches the capillary tube at the part where the sample is located. Usually the capillary tube is introduced into the apparatus about 10 K below the melting temperature.

The bath liquid is heated so that the temperature rise is approximately 3 K/min. The liquid should be stirred. At about 10 K below the expected melting temperature the rate of temperature rise is adjusted to a maximum of 1 K/min.

The calculation of the melting temperature is as follows:

T = TD + 0,00016 (TD - TE) n

where:

T

=

corrected melting temperature in K

TD

=

temperature reading of thermometer D in K

TE

=

temperature reading of thermometer E in K

n

=

number of graduations of mercury thread on thermometer D at emergent stem.

1.6.1.2.   Melting temperature devices with metal block

This consists of:

See standards mentioned in 1.6.1.1. Thermoelectrical measuring devices with comparable accuracy are also applicable.

1.6.1.3.   Photocell detection

Apparatus and procedure:

The apparatus consists of a metal chamber with automated heating system. Three capillary are filled accordingly to 1.6.1.1 and placed in the oven.

Several linear increases of temperature are available for calibrating the apparatus and the suitable temperature rise is electrically adjusted at a pre-selected constant and linear rate. recorders show the actual oven temperature and the temperature of the substance in the capillary tubes.

1.6.2.   Hot stages

1.6.2.1.   Kofler hot bar

See Appendix.

1.6.2.2.   Melt microscope

See Appendix.

1.6.2.3.   Meniscus method (polyamides)

See Appendix.

The heating rate through the melting temperature should be less than 1 K/min.

1.6.3.   Methods for the determination of the freezing temperature

See Appendix.

1.6.4.   Thermal analysis

1.6.4.1.   Differential thermal analysis

See Appendix.

1.6.4.2.   Differential scanning calorimetry

See Appendix.

1.6.5.   Determination of the pour point

See Appendix.

2.   DATA

A thermometer correction is necessary in some cases.

3.   REPORTING

The test report shall, if possible, include the following information:

The mean of at least two measurements which are in the range of the estimated accuracy (see tables) is reported as the melting temperature.

If the difference between the temperature at the beginning and at the final stage of melting is within the limits of the accuracy of the method, the temperature at the final stage of melting is taken as the melting temperature; otherwise the two temperatures are reported.

If the substance decomposes or sublimes before the melting temperature is reached, the temperature at which the effect is observed shall be reported.

All information and remarks relevant for the interpretation of results have to be reported, especially with regard to impurities and physical state of the substance.

4.   REFERENCES

Appendix

For additional technical details, the following standards may be consulted for example.

1.   Capillary methods

1.1.   Melting temperature devices with liquid bath

1.2.   Melting temperature devices with metal block

2.   Hot stages

2.1.   Kofler hot bar

2.2.   Melt microscope

2.3.   Meniscus method (polyamides)

3.   Methods for the determination of the freezing temperature

4.   Thermal analysis

4.1.   Differential thermal analysis

4.2.   Differential scanning calorimetry

5.   Determination of the pour point

A.2.   BOILING TEMPERATURE

1.   METHOD

The majority of the methods described are based on the OECD Test Guideline (1). The fundamental principles are given in references (2) and (3).

1.1.   INTRODUCTION

The methods and devices described here can be applied to liquid and low melting substances, provided that these do not undergo chemical reaction below the boiling temperature (for example: auto-oxidation, rearrangement, degradation, etc.). The methods can be applied to pure and to impure liquid substances.

Emphasis is put on the methods using photocell detection and thermal analysis, because these methods allow the determination of melting as well as boiling temperatures. Moreover, measurements can be performed automatically.

The ‘dynamic method’ has the advantage that it can also be applied to the determination of the vapour pressure and it is not necessary to correct the boiling temperature to the normal pressure (101,325 kPa) because the normal pressure can be adjusted during the measurement by a manostat.

Remarks:

The influence of impurities on the determination of the boiling temperature depends greatly upon the nature of the impurity. When there are volatile impurities in the sample, which could affect the results, the substance may be purified.

1.2.   DEFINITIONS AND UNITS

The normal boiling temperature is defined as the temperature at which the vapour pressure of a liquid is 101,325 kPa.

If the boiling temperature is not measured at normal atmospheric pressure, the temperature dependence of the vapour pressure can be described by the Clausius-Clapeyron equation:

where:

p

=

the vapour pressure of the substance in pascals

Δ Hv

=

its heat of vaporisation in J mol-1

R

=

the universal molar gas constant = 8,314 J mol-1 K-1

T

=

thermodynamic temperature in K

The boiling temperature is stated with regard to the ambient pressure during the measurement.

Conversions

Pressure (units: kPa)

100 kPa

=

1 bar = 0,1 MPa (‘bar’ is still permissible but not recommended)

133 Pa

=

1 mm Hg = 1 Torr (the units ‘mm Hg’ and ‘Torr’ are not permitted)

1 atm

=

standard atmosphere = 101 325 Pa (the unit ‘atm’ is not permitted)

Temperature (units: K)

t = T - 273,15

t

:

Celsius temperature, degree Celsius (oC)

T

:

thermodynamic temperature, kelvin (K)

1.3.   REFERENCE SUBSTANCES

Reference substances do not need to be employed in all cases when investigating a new substance. They should primarily serve to check the performance of the method from time to time and to allow comparison with results from other methods.

Some calibration substances can be found in the methods listed in the Appendix.

1.4.   PRINCIPLE OF THE TEST METHOD

Five methods for the determination of the boiling temperature (boiling range) are based on the measurement of the boiling temperature, two others are based on thermal analysis.

1.4.1.   Determination by use of the ebulliometer

Ebulliometers were originally developed for the determination of the molecular weight by boiling temperature elevation, but they are also suited for exact boiling temperature measurements. A very simple apparatus is described in ASTM D 1120-72 (see Appendix). The liquid is heated in this apparatus under equilibrium conditions at atmospheric pressure until it is boiling.

1.4.2.   Dynamic method

This method involves the measurement of the vapour recondensation temperature by means of an appropriate thermometer in the reflux while boiling. The pressure can be varied in this method.

1.4.3.   Distillation method for boiling temperature

This method involves distillation of the liquid and measurement of the vapour recondensation temperature and determination of the amount of distillate.

1.4.4.   Method according to Siwoloboff

A sample is heated in a sample tube, which is immersed in a liquid in a heat-bath. A fused capillary, containing an air bubble in the lower part, is dipped in the sample tube.

1.4.5.   Photocell detection

Following the principle according to Siwoloboff, automatic photo-electrical measurement is made using rising bubbles.

1.4.6.   Differential thermal analysis

This technique records the difference in temperatures between the substance and a reference material as a function of temperature, while the substance and reference material are subjected to the same controlled temperature programme. When the sample undergoes a transition involving a change of enthalpy, that change is indicated by an endothermic departure (boiling) from the base line of the temperature record.

1.4.7.   Differential scanning calorimetry

This technique records the difference in energy inputs into a substance and a reference material as a function of temperature, while the substance and reference material are subjected to the same controlled temperature programme. This energy is the energy necessary to establish zero temperature difference between the substance and the reference material. When the sample undergoes a transition involving a change of enthalpy, that change is indicated by an endothermic departure (boiling) from the base line of the heat flow record.

1.5.   QUALITY CRITERIA

The applicability and accuracy of the different methods used for the determination of the boiling temperature/boiling range are listed in table 1.

1.6.   DESCRIPTION OF THE METHODS

The procedures of some test methods have been described in international and national standards (see Appendix).

1.6.1.   Ebulliometer

See Appendix.

1.6.2.   Dynamic method

See test method A.4 for the determination of the vapour pressure.

The boiling temperature observed with an applied pressure of 101,325 kPa is recorded.

1.6.3.   Distillation process (boiling range)

See Appendix.

1.6.4.   Method according to Siwoloboff

The sample is heated in a melting temperature apparatus in a sample tube, with a diameter of approximately 5 mm (figure 1).

Figure 1 shows a type of standardised melting and boiling temperature apparatus (JIS K 0064) (made of glass, all specifications in millimetres).

Figure 1

A capillary tube (boiling capillary) which is fused about 1 cm above the lower end is placed in the sample tube. The level to which the test substance is added is such that the fused section of the capillary is below the surface of the liquid. The sample tube containing the boiling capillary is fastened either to the thermometer with a rubber band or is fixed with a support from the side (see figure 2).

The bath liquid is chosen according to boiling temperature. At temperatures up to 573 K, silicone oil can be used. Liquid paraffin may only be used up to 473 K. The heating of the bath liquid should be adjusted to a temperature rise of 3 K/min at first. The bath liquid must be stirred. At about 10 K below the expected boiling temperature, the heating is reduced so that the rate of temperature rise is less than 1 K/min. Upon approach of the boiling temperature, bubbles begin to emerge rapidly from the boiling capillary.

The boiling temperature is that temperature when, on momentary cooling, the string of bubbles stops and fluid suddenly starts rising in the capillary. The corresponding thermometer reading is the boiling temperature of the substance.

In the modified principle (figure 3) the boiling temperature is determined in a melting temperature capillary. It is stretched to a fine point about 2 cm in length (a) and a small amount of the sample is sucked up. The open end of the fine capillary is closed by melting, so that a small air bubble is located at the end. While heating in the melting temperature apparatus (b), the air bubble expands. The boiling temperature corresponds to the temperature at which the substance plug reaches the level of the surface of the bath liquid (c).

1.6.5.   Photocell detection

The sample is heated in a capillary tube inside a heated metal block.

A light beam is directed, via suitable holes in the block, through the substance onto a precisely calibrated photocell.

During the increase of the sample temperature, single air bubbles emerge from the boiling capillary. When the boiling temperature is reached the number of bubbles increases greatly. This causes a change in the intensity of light, recorded by a photocell, and gives a stop signal to the indicator reading out the temperature of a platinum resistance thermometer located in the block.

This method is especially useful because it allows determinations below room temperature down to 253,15 K (– 20 oC) without any changes in the apparatus. The instrument merely has to be placed in a cooling bath.

1.6.6.   Thermal analysis

1.6.6.1.   Differential thermal analysis

See Appendix.

1.6.6.2.   Differential scanning calorimetry

See Appendix.

2.   DATA

At small deviations from the normal pressure (max. ± 5 kPa) the boiling temperatures are normalised to Tn by means of the following number-value equation by Sidney Young:

Tn = T + (fT × Δp)

where:

Δp

=

(101,325 - p) [note sign]

P

=

pressure measurement in kPa

fT

=

rate of change of boiling temperature with pressure in K/kPa

T

=

measured boiling temperature in K

Tn

=

boiling temperature corrected to normal pressure in K

The temperature-correction factors, fT, and equations for their approximation are included in the international and national standards mentioned above for many substances.

For example, the DIN 53171 method mentions the following rough corrections for solvents included in paints:

3.   REPORTING

The test report shall, if possible, include the following information:

The mean of at least two measurements which are in the range of the estimated accuracy (see table 1) is reported as the boiling temperature.

The measured boiling temperatures and their mean shall be stated and the pressure(s) at which the measurements were made shall be reported in kPa. The pressure should preferably be close to normal atmospheric pressure.

All information and remarks relevant for the interpretation of results have to be reported, especially with regard to impurities and physical state of the substance.

4.   REFERENCES

Appendix

For additional technical details, the following standards may be consulted for example.

1.   Ebulliometer

2.   Distillation process (boiling range)

3.   Differential thermal analysis and differential scanning calorimetry

A.3.   RELATIVE DENSITY

1.   METHOD

The methods described are based on the OECD Test Guideline (1). The fundamental principles are given in reference (2).

1.1.   INTRODUCTION

The methods for determining relative density described are applicable to solid and to liquid substances, without any restriction in respect to their degree of purity. The various methods to be used are listed in table 1.

1.2.   DEFINITIONS AND UNITS

The relative density D20 4 of solids or liquids is the ratio between the mass of a volume of substance to be examined, determined at 20 oC, and the mass of the same volume of water, determined at 4 oC. The relative density has no dimension.

The density, ρ, of a substance is the quotient of the mass, m, and its volume, v.

The density, ρ, is given, in SI units, in kg/m3.

1.3.   REFERENCE SUBSTANCES (1) (3)

Reference substances do not need to be employed in all cases when investigating a new substance. They should primarily serve to check the performance of the method from time to time and to allow comparison with results from other methods.

1.4.   PRINCIPLE OF THE METHODS

Four classes of methods are used.

1.4.1.   Buoyancy methods

1.4.1.1.   Hydrometer (for liquid substances)

Sufficiently accurate and quick determinations of density may be obtained by the floating hydrometers, which allow the density of a liquid to be deduced from the depth of immersion by reading a graduated scale.

1.4.1.2.   Hydrostatic balance (for liquid and solid substances)

The difference between the weight of a test sample measured in air and in a suitable liquid (e.g. water) can be employed to determine its density.

For solids, the measured density is only representative of the particular sample employed. For the determination of density of liquids, a body of known volume, v, is weighed first in air and then in the liquid.

1.4.1.3.   Immersed body method (for liquid substances) (4)

In this method, the density of a liquid is determined from the difference between the results of weighing the liquid before and after immersing a body of known volume in the test liquid.

1.4.2.   Pycnometer methods

For solids or liquids, pycnometers of various shapes and with known volumes may be employed. The density is calculated from the difference in weight between the full and empty pycnometer and its known volume.

1.4.3.   Air comparison pycnometer (for solids)

The density of a solid in any form can be measured at room temperature with the gas comparison pycnometer. The volume of a substance is measured in air or in an inert gas in a cylinder of variable calibrated volume. For the calculation of density one mass measurement is taken after concluding the volume measurement.

1.4.4.   Oscillating densitimeter (5) (6) (7)

The density of a liquid can be measured by an oscillating densitimeter. A mechanical oscillator constructed in the form of a U-tube is vibrated at the resonance frequency of the oscillator which depends on its mass. Introducing a sample changes the resonance frequency of the oscillator. The apparatus has to be calibrated by two liquid substances of known densities. These substances should preferably be chosen such that their densities span the range to be measured.

1.5.   QUALITY CRITERIA

The applicability of the different methods used for the determination of the relative density is listed in the table.

1.6.   DESCRIPTION OF THE METHODS

The standards given as examples, which are to be consulted for additional technical details, are attached in the Appendix.

The tests have to be run at 20 oC, and at least two measurements performed.

2.   DATA

See standards.

3.   REPORTING

The test report shall, if possible, include the following information:

The relative density,

, shall be reported as defined in 1.2, along with the physical state of the measured substance.

All information and remarks relevant for the interpretation of results have to be reported, especially with regard to impurities and physical state of the substance.

4.   REFERENCES

Appendix

For additional technical details, the following standards may be consulted for example.

1.   Buoyancy methods

1.1.   Hydrometer

1.2.   Hydrostatic balance

For solid substances

For liquid substances

1.3.   Immersed body method

2.   Pycnometer methods

2.1.   For liquid substances

2.2.   For solid substances

3.   Air comparison pycnometer

▼M1

A.4.   VAPOUR PRESSURE

1.   METHOD

This method is equivalent to OECD TG 104 (2004).

1.1.   INTRODUCTION

This revised version of method A.4(1) includes one additional method; Effusion method: isothermal thermogravimetry, designed for substances with very low pressures (down to 10–10 Pa). In the light of needs for procedures, especially in relation to obtaining vapour pressure for substances with low vapour pressure, other procedures of this method are re-evaluated with respect to other applicability ranges.

At the thermodynamic equilibrium the vapour pressure of a pure substance is a function of temperature only. The fundamental principles are described elsewhere (2)(3).

No single measurement procedure is applicable to the entire range of vapour pressures from less than 10–10 to 105 Pa. Eight methods for measuring vapour pressure are included in this method which can be applied in different vapour pressure ranges. The various methods are compared as to application and measuring range in Table 1. The methods can only be applied for compounds that do not decompose under the conditions of the test. In cases where the experimental methods cannot be applied due to technical reasons, the vapour pressure can also be estimated, and a recommended estimation method is set out in the Appendix.

1.2.   DEFINITIONS AND UNITS

The vapour pressure of a substance is defined as the saturation pressure above a solid or liquid substance.

The SI unit of pressure, which is the pascal (Pa), should be used. Other units which have been employed historically are given hereafter, together with their conversion factors:

The SI unit of temperature is the kelvin (K). The conversion of degrees Celsius to kelvin is according to the formula:

T = t + 273,15

where, T is the kelvin or thermodynamic temperature and t is the Celsius temperature.

1.3.   PRINCIPLE OF THE TEST

In general, the vapour pressure is determined at various temperatures. In a limited temperature range, the logarithm of the vapour pressure of a pure substance is a linear function of the inverse of the thermodynamic temperature according to the simplified Clapeyron-Clausius equation:

where:

p

=

the vapour pressure in pascals

ΔHv

=

the heat of vaporisation in J mol–1

R

=

the universal gas constant, 8,314 J mol–1 K–1

T

=

the temperature in K

1.4.   REFERENCE SUBSTANCES

Reference substances do not need to be employed. They serve primarily to check the performance of a method from time to time as well as to allow comparison between results of different methods.

1.5.   DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD

1.5.1.   Dynamic method (Cottrell’s method)

1.5.1.1.   Principle

The vapour pressure is determined by measuring the boiling temperature of the substance at various specified pressures between roughly 103 and 105 Pa. This method is also recommended for the determination of the boiling temperature. For that purpose it is useful up to 600 K. The boiling temperatures of liquids are approximately 0,1 °C higher at a depth of 3 to 4 cm than at the surface because of the hydrostatic pressure of the column of liquid. In Cottrell’s method (4) the thermometer is placed in the vapour above the surface of the liquid and the boiling liquid is made to pump itself continuously over the bulb of the thermometer. A thin layer of liquid which is in equilibrium with vapour at atmospheric pressure covers the bulb. The thermometer thus reads the true boiling point, without errors due to superheating or hydrostatic pressure. The pump originally employed by Cottrell is shown in figure 1. Tube A contains the boiling liquid. A platinum wire B sealed into the bottom facilitates uniform boiling. The side tube C leads to a condenser, and the sheath D prevents the cold condensate from reaching the thermometer E. When the liquid in A is boiling, bubbles and liquid trapped by the funnel are poured via the two arms of the pump F over the bulb of the thermometer.

Cottrell pump (4)

1.5.1.2.   Apparatus

A very accurate apparatus, employing the Cottrell principle, is shown in figure 2. It consists of a tube with a boiling section in the lower part, a cooler in the middle part, and an outlet and flange in the upper part. The Cottrell pump is placed in the boiling section which is heated by means of an electrical cartridge. The temperature is measured by a jacketed thermocouple, or resistance thermometer inserting through the flange at the top. The outlet is connected to the pressure regulation system. The latter consists of a vacuum pump, a buffer volume, a manostat for admitting nitrogen for pressure regulation and manometer.

1.5.1.3.   Procedure

The substance is placed in the boiling section. Problems may be encountered with non-powder solids but these can sometimes be solved by heating the cooling jacket. The apparatus is sealed at the flange and the substance degassed. Frothing substances cannot be measured using this method.

The lowest desired pressure is then set and the heating is switched on. At the same time, the temperature sensor is connected to a recorder.

Equilibrium is reached when a constant boiling temperature is recorded at constant pressure. Particular care must be taken to avoid bumping during boiling. In addition, complete condensation must occur on the cooler. When determining the vapour pressure of low melting solids, care should be taken to prevent the condenser from blocking.

After recording this equilibrium point, a higher pressure is set. The process is continued in this manner until 105 Pa has been reached (approximately 5 to 10 measuring points in all). As a check, equilibrium points must be repeated at decreasing pressures.

1.5.2.   Static method

1.5.2.1.   Principle

In the static method (5), the vapour pressure at thermodynamic equilibrium is determined at a specified temperature. This method is suitable for substances and multicomponent liquids and solids in the range from 10–1 to 105 Pa and, provided care is taken, also in the range 1 to 10 Pa.

1.5.2.2.   Apparatus

The equipment consists of a constant-temperature bath (precision of ± 0,2 K), a container for the sample connected to a vacuum line, a manometer and a system to regulate the pressure. The sample chamber (figure 3a) is connected to the vacuum line via a valve and a differential manometer (U-tube containing a suitable manometer fluid) which serves as zero indicator. Mercury, silicones and phthalates are suitable for use in the differential manometer, depending on the pressure range and the chemical behaviour of the test substance. However, based on environmental concerns, the use of mercury should be avoided, if possible. The test substance must not dissolve noticeably in, or react with, the U-tube fluid. A pressure gauge can be used instead of a U-tube (figure 3b). For the manometer, mercury can be used in the range from normal pressure down to 102 Pa, while silicone fluids and phthalates are suitable for use below 102 Pa down to 10 Pa. There are other pressure gauges which can be used below 102 Pa and heatable membrane capacity manometers can even be used at below 10–1 Pa. The temperature is measured on the outside wall of the vessel containing the sample or in the vessel itself.

1.5.2.3.   Procedure

Using the apparatus as described in figure 3a, fill the U-tube with the chosen liquid, which must be degassed at an elevated temperature before readings are taken. The test substance is placed in the apparatus and degassed at reduced temperature. In the case of a multiple-component sample, the temperature should be low enough to ensure that the composition of the material is not altered. Equilibrium can be established more quickly by stirring. The sample can be cooled with liquid nitrogen or dry ice, but care should be taken to avoid condensation of air or pump-fluid. With the valve over the sample vessel open, suction is applied for several minutes to remove the air. If necessary, the degassing operation is repeated several times.

When the sample is heated with the valve closed, the vapour pressure increases. This alters the equilibrium of the fluid in the U-tube. To compensate for this, nitrogen or air is admitted to the apparatus until the differential pressure indicator is at zero again. The pressure required for this can be read off the manometer or off an instrument of higher precision. This pressure corresponds to the vapour pressure of the substance at the temperature of the measurement. Using the apparatus described in figure 3b, the vapour pressure is read off directly.

The vapour pressure is determined at suitably small temperature intervals (approximately 5 to 10 measuring points in all) up to the desired temperature maximum.

Low-temperature readings must be repeated as a check. If the values obtained from the repeated readings do not coincide with the curve obtained for increasing temperature, this may be due to one of the following situations:

1.5.3.   Isoteniscope Method

1.5.3.1.   Principle

The isoteniscope (6) is based on the principle of the static method. The method involves placing a sample in a bulb maintained at constant temperature and connected to a manometer and a vacuum pump. Impurities more volatile than the substance are removed by degassing at reduced pressure. The vapour pressure of the sample at selected temperatures is balanced by a known pressure of inert gas. The isoteniscope was developed to measure the vapour pressure of certain liquid hydrocarbons but it is appropriate for the investigation of solids as well. The method is usually not suitable for multicomponent systems. Results are subject to only slight errors for samples containing non-volatile impurities. The recommended range is 102 to 105 Pa.

1.5.3.2.   Apparatus

An example of a measuring device is shown in figure 4. A complete description can be found in ASTM D 2879-86 (6).

1.5.3.3.   Procedure

In the case of liquids, the substance itself serves as the fluid in the differential manometer. A quantity of the liquid, sufficient to fill the bulb and the short leg of the manometer, is put in the isoteniscope. The isoteniscope is attached to a vacuum system and evacuated, then filled by nitrogen. The evacuation and purge of the system is repeated twice to remove residual oxygen. The filled isoteniscope is placed in a horizontal position so that the sample spreads out into a thin layer in the sample bulb and manometer. The pressure of the system is reduced to 133 Pa and the sample is gently warmed until it just boils (removal of dissolved gases). The isoteniscope is then placed so that the sample returns to the bulb and fills the short leg of the manometer. The pressure is maintained at 133 Pa. The drawn-out tip of the sample bulb is heated with a small flame until the sample vapour released expands sufficiently to displace part of the sample from the upper part of the bulb and manometer arm into the manometer, creating a vapour-filled, nitrogen-free space. The isoteniscope is then placed in a constant temperature bath, and the pressure of the nitrogen is adjusted until it equals that of the sample. At the equilibrium, the pressure of the nitrogen equals the vapour pressure of the substance.

In the case of solids, and depending on the pressure and temperature ranges, manometer liquids such as silicon fluids or phthalates are used. The degassed manometer liquid is put in a bulge provided on the long arm of the isoteniscope. Then the solid to be investigated is placed in the sample bulb and is degassed at an elevated temperature. After that, the isoteniscope is inclined so that the manometer liquid can flow into the U-tube.

1.5.4.   Effusion method: vapour pressure balance (7)

1.5.4.1.   Principle

A sample of the test substance is heated in a small furnace and placed in an evacuated bell jar. The furnace is covered by a lid which carries small holes of known diameters. The vapour of the substance, escaping through one of the holes, is directed onto a balance pan of a highly sensitive balance which is also enclosed in the evacuated bell jar. In some designs the balance pan is surrounded by a refrigeration box, providing heat dissipation to the outside by thermal conduction, and is cooled by radiation so that the escaping vapour condenses on it. The momentum of the vapour jet acts as a force on the balance. The vapour pressure can be derived in two ways: directly from the force on the balance pan and also from the evaporation rate using the Hertz-Knudsen equation (2):

where:

G

=

evaporation rate (kg s–1 m–2)

M

=

molar mass (g mol–1)

T

=

temperature (K)

R

=

universal gas constant (J mol–1 K–1)

P

=

vapour pressure (Pa)

The recommended range is 10–3 to 1 Pa.

1.5.4.2.   Apparatus

The general principle of the apparatus is illustrated in figure 5.

1.5.5.   Effusion method: Knudsen cell

1.5.5.1.   Principle

The method is based on the estimation of the mass of test substance flowing out per unit of time of a Knudsen cell (8) in the form of vapour, through a micro-orifice under ultra-vacuum conditions. The mass of effused vapour can be obtained either by determining the loss of mass of the cell or by condensing the vapour at low temperature and determining the amount of volatilised substance using chromatography. The vapour pressure is calculated by applying the Hertz-Knudsen relation (see section 1.5.4.1) with correction factors that depend on parameters of the apparatus (9). The recommended range is 10–10 to 1 Pa (10)(11)(12)(13)(14).

1.5.5.2.   Apparatus

The general principle of the apparatus is illustrated in figure 6.

1.5.6.   Effusion method: isothermal thermogravimetry

1.5.6.1.   Principle

The method is based on the determination of accelerated evaporation rates for the test substance at elevated temperatures and ambient pressure using thermogravimetry (10)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20). The evaporation rates vT result from exposing the selected compound to a slowly flowing inert gas atmosphere, and monitoring the weight loss at defined isothermal temperatures T in Kelvin over appropriate periods of time. The vapour pressures pT are calculated from the vT values by using the linear relationship between the logarithm of the vapour pressure and the logarithm of the evaporation rate. If necessary, an extrapolation to temperatures of 20 and 25 °C can be made by regression analysis of log pT vs. 1/T. This method is suitable for substances with vapour pressures as low as 10–10 Pa (10–12 mbar) and with purity as close as possible to 100 % to avoid the misinterpretation of measured weight losses.

1.5.6.2.   Apparatus

The general principle of the experimental set-up is shown in figure 7.

The sample carrier plate, hanging on a microbalance in a temperature controlled chamber, is swept by a stream of dry nitrogen gas which carries the vaporised molecules of the test substance away. After leaving the chamber, the gas stream is purified by a sorption unit.

1.5.6.3.   Procedure

The test substance is applied to the surface of a roughened glass plate as a homogeneous layer. In the case of solids, the plate is wetted uniformly by a solution of the substance in a suitable solvent and dried in an inert atmosphere. For the measurement, the coated plate is hung into the thermogravimetric analyser and subsequently its weight loss is measured continuously as a function of time.

The evaporation rate vT at a definite temperature is calculated from the weight loss Δm of the sample plate by

where F is the surface area of the coated test substances, normally the surface area of the sample plate, and t is the time for weight loss Δm.

The vapour pressure pT is calculated on the basis of its function of evaporation rate vT:

Log pT = C + D · log vT

where C and D are constants specific for the experimental arrangement used, depending on the diameter of the measurement chamber and on the gas flow rate. These constants must be determined once by measuring a set of compounds with known vapour pressure and regressing log pT vs. log vT (11)(21)(22).

The relationship between the vapour pressure pT and the temperature T in Kelvin is given by

Log pT = A + B · 1/T

where A and B are constants obtained by regressing log pT vs. 1/T. With this equation, the vapour pressure can be calculated for any other temperature by extrapolation.

1.5.7.   Gas saturation method (23)

1.5.7.1.   Principle

Inert gas is passed, at room temperature and at a known flow rate, through or over a sample of the test substance, slowly enough to ensure saturation. Achieving saturation in the gas phase is of critical importance. The transported substance is trapped, generally using a sorbent, and its amount is determined. As an alternative to vapour trapping and subsequent analysis, in-train analytical techniques, like gas chromatography, may be used to determine quantitatively the amount of material transported. The vapour pressure is calculated on the assumption that the ideal gas law is obeyed and that the total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the pressures of the component gases. The partial pressure of the test substance, i.e. the vapour pressure, is calculated from the known total gas volume and from the weight of the material transported.

The gas saturation procedure is applicable to solid or liquid substances. It can be used for vapour pressures down to 10–10 Pa (10)(11)(12)(13)(14). The method is most reliable for vapour pressures below 103 Pa. Above 103 Pa, the vapour pressures are generally overestimated, probably due to aerosol formation. Since the vapour pressure measurements are made at room temperature, the need to extrapolate data from high temperatures is not necessary and high temperature extrapolation, which can often cause serious errors, is avoided.

1.5.7.2.   Apparatus

The procedure requires the use of a constant-temperature box. The sketch in figure 8 shows a box containing three solid and three liquid sample holders, which allow for the triplicate analysis of either a solid or a liquid sample. The temperature is controlled to ± 0,5 °C or better.

In general, nitrogen is used as an inert carrier gas but, occasionally, another gas may be required (24). The carrier gas must be dry. The gas stream is split into 6 streams, controlled by needle valves (approximately 0,79 mm orifice), and flows into the box via 3,8 mm i.d. copper tubing. After temperature equilibration, the gas flows through the sample and the sorbent trap and exists from the box.

Solid samples are loaded into 5 mm i.d. glass tubing between glass wool plugs (see Figure 9). Figure 10 shows a liquid sample holder and sorbent system. The most reproducible method for measuring the vapour pressure of liquids is to coat the liquid on glass beads or on an inert sorbent such as silica, and to pack the holder with these beads. As an alternative, the carrier gas may be made to pass a coarse frit and bubble through a column of the liquid test substance.

The sorbent system contains a front and a backup sorbent section. At very low vapour pressures, only small amounts are retained by the sorbent and the adsorption on the glass wool and the glass tubing between the sample and the sorbent may be a serious problem.

Traps cooled with solid CO2 are another efficient way for collecting the vaporised material. They do not cause any back pressure on the saturator column and it is also easy to quantitatively remove the trapped material.

1.5.7.3.   Procedure

The flow rate of the effluent carrier gas is measured at room temperature. The flow rate is checked frequently during the experiment to assure that there is an accurate value for the total volume of carrier gas. Continuous monitoring with a mass flow-meter is preferred. Saturation of the gas phase may require considerable contact time and hence quite low gas flow rates (25).

At the end of the experiment, both the front and backup sorbent sections are analysed separately. The compound on each section is desorbed by adding a solvent. The resulting solutions are analysed quantitatively to determine the weight desorbed from each section. The choice of the analytical method (also the choice of sorbent and desorbing solvent) is dictated by the nature of the test material. The desorption efficiency is determined by injecting a known amount of sample onto the sorbent, desorbing it and analysing the amount recovered. It is important to check the desorption efficiency at or near the concentration of the sample under the test conditions.

To assure that the carrier gas is saturated with the test substance, three different gas flow rates are used. If the calculated vapour pressure shows no dependence on flow rate, the gas is assumed to be saturated.

The vapour pressure is calculated through the equation:

where:

p

=

vapour pressure (Pa)

W

=

mass of evaporated test substance (g)

V

=

volume of saturated gas (m3)

R

=

universal gas constant 8,314 (J mol–1 K–1)

T

=

temperature (K)

M

=

molar mass of test substance (g mol–1)

Measured volumes must be corrected for pressure and temperature differences between the flow meter and the saturator.

1.5.8.   Spinning rotor

1.5.8.1.   Principle

This method uses a spinning rotor viscosity gauge, in which the measuring element is a small steel ball which, suspended in a magnetic field, is made to spin by rotating fields (26)(27)(28). Pick-up coils allow its spinning rate to be measured. When the ball has reached a given rotational speed, usually about 400 revolutions per second, energising is stopped and deceleration, due to gas friction, takes place. The drop of rotational speed is measured as a function of time. The vapour pressure is deduced from the pressure-dependent slow-down of the steel ball. The recommended range is 10–4 to 0,5 Pa.

1.5.8.2.   Apparatus

A schematic drawing of the experimental set-up is shown in figure 11. The measuring head is placed in a constant-temperature enclosure, regulated within 0,1 °C. The sample container is placed in a separate enclosure, also regulated within 0,1 °C. All other parts of the set-up are kept at a higher temperature to prevent condensation. The whole apparatus is connected to a high-vacuum system.

2.   DATA AND REPORTING

2.1.   DATA

The vapour pressure from any of the preceding methods should be determined for at least two temperatures. Three or more are preferred in the range from 0 to 50 °C, in order to check the linearity of the vapour pressure curve. In case of Effusion method (Knudsen cell and isothermal thermogravimetry) and Gas saturation method, 120 to 150 °C is recommended for the measuring temperature range instead of 0 to 50 °C.

2.2.   TEST REPORT

The test report must include the following information:

If a transition (change of state, decomposition) is observed, the following information should be noted:

All information and remarks relevant for the interpretation of results have to be reported, especially with regard to impurities and physical state of the substance.

3.   LITERATURE

Appendix

Estimation method

INTRODUCTION

Estimated values of the vapour pressure can be used:

ESTIMATION METHOD

The vapour pressure of liquids and solids can be estimated by use of the modified Watson correlation (a). The only experimental data required is the normal boiling point. The method is applicable over the pressure range from 105 Pa to 10–5 Pa.

Detailed information on the method is given in ‘Handbook of Chemical Property Estimation Methods’ (b). See also OECD Environmental Monograph No.67 (c).

CALCULATION PROCEDURE

The vapour pressure is calculated as follows:

where:

T

=

temperature of interest

Tb

=

normal boiling point

Pvp

=

vapour pressure at temperature T

ΔHvb

=

heat of vaporisation

ΔZb

=

compressibility factor (estimated at 0,97)

m

=

empirical factor depending on the physical state at the temperature of interest

Further,

where, KF is an empirical factor considering the polarity of the substance. For several compound types, KF factors are listed in reference (b).

Quite often, data are available in which a boiling point at reduced pressure is given. In such a case, the vapour pressure is calculated as follows:

where, T1 is the boiling point at the reduced pressure P1.

REPORT

When using the estimation method, the report shall include a comprehensive documentation of the calculation.

LITERATURE

▼B

A.5.   SURFACE TENSION

1.   METHOD

The methods described are based on the OECD Test Guideline (1). The fundamental principles are given in reference (2).

1.1.   INTRODUCTION

The described methods are to be applied to the measurement of the surface tension of aqueous solutions.

It is useful to have preliminary information on the water solubility, the structure, the hydrolysis properties and the critical concentration for micelles formation of the substance before performing these tests.

The following methods are applicable to most chemical substances, without any restriction in respect to their degree of purity.

The measurement of the surface tension by the ring tensiometer method is restricted to aqueous solutions with a dynamic viscosity of less than approximately 200 mPa s.

1.2.   DEFINITIONS AND UNITS

The free surface enthalpy per unit of surface area is referred to as surface tension.

The surface tension is given as:

N/m (SI unit) or

mN/m (SI sub-unit)

1 N/m = 103 dynes/cm

1 mN/m = 1 dyne/cm in the obsolete cgs system

1.3.   REFERENCE SUBSTANCES

Reference substances do not need to be employed in all cases when investigating a new substance. They should primarily serve to check the performance of the method from time to time and to allow comparison with results from other methods.

Reference substances which cover a wide range of surface tensions are given in references 1 and 3.

1.4.   PRINCIPLE OF THE METHODS

The methods are based on the measurement of the maximum force which is necessary to exert vertically, on a stirrup or a ring in contact with the surface of the liquid being examined placed in a measuring cup, in order to separate it from this surface, or on a plate, with an edge in contact with the surface, in order to draw up the film that has formed.

Substances which are soluble in water at least at a concentration of 1 mg/l are tested in aqueous solution at a single concentration.

1.5.   QUALITY CRITERIA

These methods are capable of greater precision than is likely to be required for environmental assessment.

1.6.   DESCRIPTION OF THE METHODS

A solution of the substance is prepared in distilled water. The concentration of this solution should be 90 % of the saturation solubility of the substance in water; when this concentration exceeds 1 g/l, a concentration of 1 g/l is used for testing. Substances with water solubility lower than 1 mg/l need not be tested.

1.6.1.   Plate method

See ISO 304 and NF T 73-060 (Surface active agents — determination of surface tension by drawing up liquid films).

1.6.2.   Stirrup method

See ISO 304 and NF T 73-060 (Surface active agents — determination of surface tension by drawing up liquid films).

1.6.3.   Ring method

See ISO 304 and NF T 73-060 (Surface active agents — determination of surface tension by drawing up liquid films).

1.6.4.   OECD harmonised ring method

1.6.4.1.   Apparatus

Commercially available tensiometers are adequate for this measurement. They consist of the following elements:

1.6.4.1.1.    Mobile sample table

The mobile sample table is used as a support for the temperature-controlled measurement vessel holding the liquid to be tested. Together with the force measuring system, it is mounted on a stand.

1.6.4.1.2.    Force measuring system

The force measuring system (see figure) is located above the sample table. The error of the force measurement shall not exceed ± 10-6 N, corresponding to an error limit of ± 0,1 mg in a mass measurement. In most cases, the measuring scale of commercially available tensiometers is calibrated in mN/m so that the surface tension can be read directly in mN/m with an accuracy of 0,1 mN/m.

1.6.4.1.3.    Measuring body (ring)

The ring is usually made of a platinum-iridium wire of about 0,4 mm thickness and a mean circumference of 60 mm. The wire ring is suspended horizontally from a metal pin and a wire mounting bracket to establish the connection to the force measuring system (see figure).

(All dimensions expressed in millimetres)

1.6.4.1.4.    Measurement vessel

The measurement vessel holding the test solution to be measured shall be a temperature-controlled glass vessel. It shall be designed so that during the measurement the temperature of the test solution liquid and the gas phase above its surface remains constant and that the sample cannot evaporate. Cylindrical glass vessels having an inside diameter of not less than 45 mm are acceptable.

1.6.4.2.   Preparation of the apparatus

1.6.4.2.1.    Cleaning

Glass vessels shall be cleaned carefully. If necessary they shall be washed with hot chromo-sulphuric acid and subsequently with syrupy phosphoric acid (83 to 98 % by weight of H3PO4), thoroughly rinsed in tap water and finally washed with double-distilled water until a neutral reaction is obtained and subsequently dried or rinsed with part of the sample liquid to be measured.

The ring shall first be rinsed thoroughly in water to remove any substances which are soluble in water, briefly immersed in chromo-sulphuric acid, washed in double-distilled water until a neutral reaction is obtained and finally heated briefly above a methanol flame.

Note:

Contamination by substances which are not dissolved or destroyed by chromo-sulphuric acid or phosphoric acid, such as silicones, shall be removed by means of a suitable organic solvent.

1.6.4.2.2.    Calibration of the apparatus

The validation of the apparatus consists of verifying the zero point and adjusting it so that the indication of the instrument allows reliable determination in mN/m.

The apparatus shall be levelled, for instance by means of a spirit level on the tensiometer base, by adjusting the levelling screws in the base.

After mounting the ring on the apparatus and prior to immersion in the liquid, the tensiometer indication shall be adjusted to zero and the ring checked for parallelism to the liquid surface. For this purpose, the liquid surface can be used as a mirror.

The actual test calibration can be accomplished by means of either of two procedures:

where:

(mN/m)

m

=

mass of the rider (g)

g

=

gravity acceleration (981 cm s-2 at sea level)

b

=

mean circumference of the ring (cm)

σa

=

reading of the tensiometer after placing the rider on the ring (mN/m).

The calibration factor, Φb by which all the instrument readings shall be multiplied, shall be determined in accordance with the equation (2):

where:

σo

=

value cited in the literature for the surface tension of water (mN/m)

σg

=

measured value of the surface tension of the water (mN/m) both at the same temperature.

1.6.4.3.   Preparation of samples

Aqueous solutions shall be prepared of the substances to be tested, using the required concentrations in water, and shall not contain any non-dissolved substances.

The solution must be maintained at a constant temperature (± 0,5 oC). Since the surface tension of a solution in the measurement vessel alters over a period of time, several measurements shall be made at various times and a curve plotted showing surface tension as a function of time. When no further change occurs, a state of equilibrium has been reached.

Dust and gaseous contamination by other substances interfere with the measurement. The work shall therefore be carried out under a protective cover.

1.6.5.   Test conditions

The measurement shall be made at approximately 20 oC and shall be controlled to within ± 0,5 oC.

1.6.6.   Performance of test

The solutions to be measured shall be transferred to the carefully cleaned measurement vessel, taking care to avoid foaming, and subsequently the measurement vessel shall be placed onto the table of the test apparatus. The table-top with measurement vessel shall be raised until the ring is immersed below the surface of the solution to be measured. Subsequently, the table-top shall be lowered gradually and evenly (at a rate of approximately 0,5 cm/min) to detach the ring from the surface until the maximum force has been reached. The liquid layer attached to the ring must not separate from the ring. After completing the measurements, the ring shall be immersed below the surface again and the measurements repeated until a constant surface tension value is reached. The time from transferring the solution to the measurement vessel shall be recorded for each determination. Readings shall be taken at the maximum force required to detach the ring from the liquid surface.

2.   DATA

In order to calculate the surface tension, the value read in mN/m on the apparatus shall be first multiplied by the calibration factor Φa or Φb (depending on the calibration procedure used). This will yield a value which applies only approximately and therefore requires correction.

Harkins and Jordan (4) have empirically determined correction factors for surface-tension values measured by the ring method which are dependent on ring dimensions, the density of the liquid and its surface tension.

Since it is laborious to determine the correction factor for each individual measurement from the Harkins and Jordan tables, in order to calculate the surface tension for aqueous solutions the simplified procedure of reading the corrected surface-tension values directly from the table may be used. (Interpolation shall be used for readings ranging between the tabular values.)

This table has been compiled on the basis of the Harkins-Jordan correction. It is similar to that in the DIN Standard (DIN 53914) for water and aqueous solutions (density ρ = 1 g/cm3 and is for a commercially available ring having the dimensions R = 9,55 mm (mean ring radius) and r = 0,185 mm (ring wire radius). The table provides corrected values for surface-tension measurements taken after calibration with weights or calibration with water.

Alternatively, without the preceding calibration, the surface tension call can be calculated according to the following formula:

where:

F

=

the force measured on the dynamometer at the breakpoint of the film

R

=

the radius of the ring

f

=

the correction factor (1)

3.   REPORTING

3.1.   TEST REPORT

The test report shall, if possible, include the following information:

3.2.   INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS

Considering that distilled water has a surface tension of 72,75 mN/m at 20 oC, substances showing a surface tension lower than 60 mN/m under the conditions of this method should be regarded as being surface-active materials.

4.   REFERENCES

▼M4

A.6.   WATER SOLUBILITY

INTRODUCTION

INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS

DEFINITIONS AND UNITS

REFERENCE CHEMICALS

DESCRIPTION OF THE METHODS

Test conditions

Preliminary test

Column elution method

Principle

Apparatus

Figure 1

Dimensions in mm

Figure 2

Figure 3

Procedure using a recirculating pump

Procedure using a levelling vessel

Flask method

Principle

Apparatus

Procedure

Analytical determinations

DATA AND REPORTING

Data

Column elution method

Flask method

Test Report

Column elution method

Flask method

LITERATURE:

▼B

A.8.   PARTITION COEFFICIENT

1.   METHOD

The ‘shake flask’ method described is based on the OECD Test Guideline (1).

1.1.   INTRODUCTION

It is useful to have preliminary information on structural formula, dissociation constant, water solubility, hydrolysis, n-octanol solubility and surface tension of the substance to perform this test.

Measurements should be made on ionisable substances only in their non-ionised form (free acid or free base) produced by the use of an appropriate buffer with a pH of at least one pH unit below (free acid) or above (free base) the pK.

This test method includes two separate procedures: the shake flask method and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The former is applicable when the log Pow value (see below for definitions) falls within the range - 2 to 4 and the latter within the range 0 to 6. Before carrying out either of the experimental procedures a preliminary estimate of the partition coefficient should first be obtained.

The shake-flask method applies only to essentially pure substances soluble in water and n-octanol. It is not applicable to surface active materials (for which a calculated value or an estimate based on the individual n-octanol and water solubilities should be provided).

The HPLC method is not applicable to strong acids and bases, metal complexes, surface-active materials or substances which react with the eluent. For these materials, a calculated value or an estimate based on individual n-octanol and water solubilities should be provided.

The HPLC method is less sensitive to the presence of impurities in the test compound than is the shake-flask method. Nevertheless, in some cases impurities can make the interpretation of the results difficult because peak assignment becomes uncertain. For mixtures which give an unresolved band, upper and lower limits of log P should be stated.

1.2.   DEFINITION AND UNITS

The partition coefficient (P) is defined as the ratio of the equilibrium concentrations (ci) of a dissolved substance in a two-phase system consisting of two largely immiscible solvents. In the case n-octanol and water:

The partition coefficient (P) therefore is the quotient of two concentrations and is usually given in the form of its logarithm to base 10 (log P).

1.3.   REFERENCE SUBSTANCES

Shake-flask method

Reference substances do not need to be employed in all cases when investigating a new substance. They should primarily serve to check the performance of the method from time to time and to allow comparison with results from other methods.

HPLC method

In order to correlate the measured HPLC data of a compound with its P value, a calibration graph of log P versus chromatographic data using at least six reference points has to be established. It is for the user to select the appropriate reference substances. Whenever possible, at least one reference compound should have a Pow above that of the test substance, and another a Pow below that of the test substance. For log P values less than 4, the calibration can be based on data obtained by the shake-flask method. For log P values greater than 4, the calibration can be based on validated literature values if these are in agreement with calculated values. For better accuracy, it is preferable to choose reference compounds which are structurally related to the test substance.

Extensive lists of values of log Pow for many groups of chemicals are available (2)(3). If data on the partition coefficients of structurally related compounds are not available, then a more general calibration, established with other reference compounds, may be used.

A list of recommended reference substances and their Pow values is given in Appendix 2.

1.4.   PRINCIPLE OF THE METHOD

1.4.1.   Shake-flask method

In order to determine a partition coefficient, equilibrium between all interacting components of the system must be achieved, and the concentrations of the substances dissolved in the two phases must be determined. A study of the literature on this subject indicates that several different techniques can be used to solve this problem, i.e. the thorough mixing of the two phases followed by their separation in order to determine the equilibrium concentration for the substance being examined.

1.4.2.   HPLC method

HPLC is performed on analytical columns packed with a commercially available solid phase containing long hydrocarbon chains (e.g. C8, C18) chemically bound onto silica. Chemicals injected onto such a column move along it at different rates because of the different degrees of partitioning between the mobile phase and the hydrocarbon stationary phase. Mixtures of chemicals are eluted in order of their hydrophobicity, with water-soluble chemicals eluted first and oil-soluble chemicals last, in proportion to their hydrocarbon-water partition coefficient. This enables the relationship between the retention time on such a (reverse phase) column and the n-octanol/water partition coefficient to be established. The partition coefficient is deduced from the capacity factor k, given by the expression:

in which, tr = retention time of the test substance, and to = average time a solvent molecule needs to pass through the column (dead-time).

Quantitative analytical methods are not required and only the determination of elution times is necessary.

1.5.   QUALITY CRITERIA

1.5.1.   Repeatability

Shake-flask method

In order to assure the accuracy of the partition coefficient, duplicate determinations are to be made under three different test conditions, whereby the quantity of substance specified as well as the ratio of the solvent volumes may be varied. The determined values of the partition coefficient expressed as their common logarithms should fall within a range of ± 0,3 log units.

HPLC method

In order to increase the confidence in the measurement, duplicate determinations must be made. The values of log P derived from individual measurements should fall within a range of ± 0,1 log units.

1.5.2.   Sensitivity

Shake-flask method

The measuring range of the method is determined by the limit of detection of the analytical procedure. This should permit the assessment of values of log Pow in the range of - 2 to 4 (occasionally when conditions apply, this range may be extended to log Pow up to 5) when the concentration of the solute in either phase is not more than 0,01 mol per litre.

HPLC method

The HPLC method enables partition coefficients to be estimated in the log Pow range 0 to 6.

Normally, the partition coefficient of a compound can be estimated to within ± l log unit of the shake-flask value. Typical correlations can be found in the literature (4)(5)(6)(7)(8). Higher accuracy can usually be achieved when correlation plots are based on structurally-related reference compounds (9).

1.5.3.   Specificity

Shake-flask method

The Nernst Partition Law applies only at constant temperature, pressure and pH for dilute solutions. It strictly applies to a pure substance dispersed between two pure solvents. If several different solutes occur in one or both phases at the same time, this may affect the results.

Dissociation or association of the dissolved molecules result in deviations from the Nernst Partition Law. Such deviations are indicated by the fact that the partition coefficient becomes dependent upon the concentration of the solution.

Because of the multiple equilibria involved, this test method should not be applied to ionisable compounds without applying a correction. The use of buffer solutions in place of water should be considered for such compounds; the pH of the buffer should be at least 1 pH unit from the pKa of the substance and bearing in mind the relevance of this pH for the environment.

1.6.   DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD

1.6.1.   Preliminary estimate of the partition coefficient

The partition coefficient is estimated preferably by using a calculation method (see Appendix 1), or where appropriate, from the ratio of the solubilities of the test substance ill the pure solvents (10).

1.6.2.   Shake-flask method

1.6.2.1.   Preparation

n-Octanol: the determination of the partition coefficient should be carried out with high purity analytical grade reagent.

Water: water distilled or double distilled in glass or quartz apparatus should be employed. For ionisable compounds, buffer solutions in place of water should be used if justified.

Note:

Water taken directly from an ion exchanger should not be used.

1.6.2.1.1.    Pre-saturation of the solvents

Before a partition coefficient is determined, the phases of the solvent system are mutually saturated by shaking at the temperature of the experiment. To do this, it is practical to shake two large stock bottles of high purity analytical grade n-octanol or water each with a sufficient quantity of the other solvent for 24 hours on a mechanical shaker and then to let them stand long enough to allow the phases to separate and to achieve a saturation state.

1.6.2.1.2.    Preparation for the test

The entire volume of the two-phase system should nearly fill the test vessel. This will help prevent loss of material due to volatilisation. The volume ratio and quantities of substance to be used are fixed by the following:

Three tests are carried out. In the first, the calculated volume ratio of n-octanol to water is used; in the second, this ratio is divided by two; and in the third, this ratio is multiplied by two (e.g. 1:1, 1:2, 2:1).

1.6.2.1.3.    Test substance

A stock solution is prepared in n-octanol pre-saturated with water. The concentration of this stock solution should be precisely determined before it is employed in the determination of the partition coefficient. This solution should be stored under conditions which ensure its stability.

1.6.2.2.   Test conditions

The test temperature should be kept constant (± 1 oC) and lie in the range of 20 to 25 oC.

1.6.2.3.   Measurement procedure

1.6.2.3.1.    Establishment of the partition equilibrium

Duplicate test vessels containing the required, accurately measured amounts of the two solvents together with the necessary quantity of the stock solution should be prepared for each of the test conditions.

The n-octanol phases should be measured by volume. The test vessels should either be placed in a suitable shaker or shaken by hand. When using a centrifuge tube, a recommended method is to rotate the tube quickly through 180o about its transverse axis so that any trapped air rises through the two phases. Experience has shown that 50 such rotations are usually sufficient for the establishment of the partition equilibrium. To be certain, 100 rotations in five minutes are recommended.

1.6.2.3.2.    Phase separation

When necessary, in order to separate the phases, centrifugation of the mixture should be carried out. This should be done in a laboratory centrifuge maintained at room temperature, or, if a non-temperature controlled centrifuge is used, the centrifuge tubes should be kept for equilibration at the test temperature for at least one hour before analysis.

1.6.2.4.   Analysis

For the determination of the partition coefficient, it is necessary to determine the concentrations of the test substance in both phases. This may be done by taking an aliquot of each of the two phases from each tube for each test condition and analyzing them by the chosen procedure. The total quantity of substance present in both phases should be calculated and compared with the quantity of the substance originally introduced.

The aqueous phase should be sampled by a procedure that minimises the risk of including traces of n-octanol: a glass syringe with a removable needle can be used to sample the water phase. The syringe should initially be partially filled with air. Air should be gently expelled while inserting the needle through the n-octanol layer. An adequate volume of aqueous phase is withdrawn into the syringe. The syringe is quickly removed from the solution and the needle detached. The contents of the syringe may then be used as the aqueous sample. The concentration in the two separated phases should preferably be determined by a substance-specific method. Examples of analytical methods which may be appropriate are:

1.6.3.   HPLC method

1.6.3.1.   Preparation

A liquid chromatograph, fitted with a pulse-free pump and a suitable detection device, is required. The use of an injection valve with injection loops is recommended. The presence of polar groups in the stationary phase may seriously impair the performance of the HPLC column. Therefore, stationary phases should have the minimal percentage of polar groups (11). Commercial microparticulate reverse-phase packings or ready-packed columns can be used. A guard column may be positioned between the injection system and the analytical column.

HPLC grade methanol and HPLC grade water are used to prepare the eluting solvent, which is degassed before use. Isocratic elution should be employed. Methanol/water ratios with a minimum water content of 25 % should be used. Typically a 3:1 (v/v) methanol-water mixture is satisfactory for eluting compounds of log P 6 within an hour, at a flow rate of 1 ml/min. For compounds of high log P it may be necessary to shorten the elution time (and those of the reference compounds) by decreasing the polarity of the mobile phase or the column length.

Substances with very low solubility in n-octanol tend to give abnormally low log Pow values with the HPLC method; the peaks of such compounds sometimes accompany the solvent front. This is probably due to the fact that the partitioning process is too slow to reach the equilibrium in the time normally taken by an HPLC separation. Decreasing the flow rate and/or lowering the methanol/water ratio may then be effective to arrive at a reliable value.

Test and reference compounds should be soluble in the mobile phase in sufficient concentrations to allow their detection. Only in exceptional cases may additives be used with the methanol-water mixture, since additives will change the properties of the column. For chromatograms with additives it is mandatory to use a separate column of the same type. If methanol-water is not appropriate, other organic solvent-water mixtures call be used, e.g. ethanol-water or acetonitrile-water.

The pH of the eluent is critical for ionisable compounds. It should be within the operating pH range of the column, which is usually between 2 and 8. Buffering is recommended. Care must be taken to avoid salt precipitation and column deterioration which occur with some organic phase/buffer mixtures. HPLC measurements with silica-based stationary phases above pH 8 are not advisable since the use of an alkaline, mobile phase may cause rapid deterioration in the performance of the column.

The reference compounds should be the purest available. Compounds to be used for test or calibration purposes are dissolved in the mobile phase if possible.

The temperature during the measurements should not vary by more than ± 2 K.

1.6.3.2.    Measurement

The dead time to can be determined by using either a homologous series (e.g. n-alkyl methyl ketones) or unretained organic compounds (e.g. thiourea or formamide). For calculating the dead time to by using a homologous series, a set of at least seven members of a homologous series is injected and the respective retention times are determined. The raw retention times tr (nc + 1) are plotted as a function of tr(nc) and the intercept a and slope b of the regression equation:

tr(nc + 1) = a + b tr(nc)

are determined (nc = number of carbon atoms). The dead time to is then given by:

to = a/(1 - b)

The next step is to construct a correlation plot of log k values versus log p for appropriate reference compounds. In practice, a set of between 5 and 10 standard reference compounds whose log p is around the expected range are injected simultaneously and the retention times are determined, preferably on a recording integrator linked to the detection system. The corresponding logarithms of the capacity factors, log k, are calculated and plotted as a function of the log p determined by the shake-flask method. The calibration is performed at regular intervals, at least once daily, so that possible changes in column performance can be allowed for.

The test substance is injected in as small a quantity of mobile phase as possible. The retention time is determined (in duplicate), permitting the calculation of the capacity factor k. From the correlation graph of the reference compounds, the partition coefficient of the test substance can be interpolated. For very low and very high partition coefficients, extrapolation is necessary. In those cases particular care has to be taken of the confidence limits of the regression line.

2.   DATA

Shake-flask method

The reliability of the determined values of P can be tested by comparison of the means of the duplicate determinations with the overall mean.

3.   REPORTING

The test report shall, if possible, include the following information:

For shake-flask method:

For HPLC method:

4.   REFERENCES

Appendix 1

Calculation/estimation methods

INTRODUCTION

A general introduction to calculation methods, data and examples are provided in the Handbook of Chemical Property Estimation Methods (a).

Calculated values of Pow can be used:

ESTIMATION METHOD

Preliminary estimate of the partition coefficient

The value of the partition coefficient can be estimated by the use of the solubilities of the test substance in the pure solvents: For this:

CALCULATION METHODS

Principle of the calculation methods

All calculation methods are based on the formal fragmentation of the molecule into suitable substructures for which reliable log Pow-increments are known. The log Pow of the whole molecule is then calculated as the sum of its corresponding fragment values plus the sum of correction terms for intramolecular interactions.

Lists of fragment constants and correction terms ate available (b)(c)(d)(e);. Some are regularly updated (b).

Quality criteria

In general, the reliability of the calculation method decreases with increasing complexity of the compound under study. In the case of simple molecules with low molecular weight and one or two functional groups, a deviation of 0,1 to 0,3 log Pow units between the results of the different fragmentation methods and the measured value can be expected. In the case of more complex molecules the margin of error can be greater. This will depend on the reliability and availability of fragment constants, as well as on the ability to recognise intramolecular interactions (e.g. hydrogen bonds) and the correct use of the correction terms (less of a problem with the computer software CLOGP-3) (b). In the case of ionising compounds the correct consideration of the charge or degree of ionisation is important.

Calculation procedures

Hansch π-method

The original hydrophobic substituent constant, π, introduced by Fujira et al. (f) is defined as:

πx = log Pow (PhX) - log Pow (PhH)

where Pow (PhX) is the partition coefficient of an aromatic derivative and Pow (PhH) that of the parent compound

(e.g. πCl = log Pow (C6H5Cl) - log Pow (C6H6) = 2,84 - 2,13 = 0,71 ).

According to its definition the π-method is applicable predominantly for aromatic substitution. π-values for a large number of substituents have been tabulated (b)(c)(d). They are used for the calculation of log Pow for aromatic molecules or substructures.

Rekker method

According to Rekker (g) the log Pow value is calculated as follows:

where fi represents the different molecular fragment constants and ai the frequency of their occurrence in the molecule under investigation. The correction terms can be expressed as an integral multiple of one single constant Cm (so-called magic constant). The fragment constants fi and Cm were determined from a list of 1 054 experimental Pow values (825 compounds) using multiple regression analysis (c)(h). The determination of the interaction terms is carried out according to set rules described in the literature (e)(h)(i).

Hansch-Leo method

According to Hansch and Leo (c), the log Pow value is calculated from:

where fi represents the different molecular fragment constants, Fj the correction terms and ai, bj the corresponding frequencies of occurrence. Derived from experimental Pow values, a list of atomic and group fragmental values and a list of correction terms Fj (so-called factors) were determined by trial and error. The correction terms have been ordered into several different classes (a)(c). It is relatively complicated and time consuming to take into account all the rules and correction terms. Software packages have been developed (b).

Combined method

The calculation of log Pow of complex molecules can be considerably improved, if the molecule is dissected into larger substructures for which reliable log Pow values are available, either from tables (b)(c) or from one's own measurements. Such fragments (e.g. heterocycles, anthraquinone, azobenzene) can then be combined with the Hansch π-values or with Rekker or Leo fragment constants.

Remarks

Report

When using calculation/estimation methods, the test report shall, if possible, include the following information:

LITERATURE

Appendix 2

Recommended Reference Substances for the HLPC Method

A.9.   FLASH-POINT

1.   METHOD

1.1.   INTRODUCTION

It is useful to have preliminary information on the flammability of the substance before performing this test. The test procedure is applicable to liquid substances whose vapours can be ignited by ignition sources. The test methods listed in this text are only reliable for flash-point ranges which are specified in the individual methods.

The possibility of chemical reactions between the substance and the sample holder should be considered when selecting the method to be used.

1.2.   DEFINITIONS AND UNITS

The flash-point is the lowest temperature, corrected to a pressure of 101,325 kPa, at which a liquid evolves vapours, under the conditions defined in the test method, in such an amount that a flammable vapour/air mixture is produced in the test vessel.

Units: oC

t = T - 273,15

(t in oC and T in K)

1.3.   REFERENCE SUBSTANCES

Reference substances do not need to be employed in all cases when investigating a new substance. They should primarily serve to check the performance of the method from time to time and to allow comparison with results from other methods.

1.4.   PRINCIPLE OF THE METHOD

The substance is placed in a test vessel and heated or cooled to the test temperature according to the procedure described in the individual test method. Ignition trials are carried out in order to ascertain whether or not the sample flashed at the test temperature.

1.5.   QUALITY CRITERIA

1.5.1.   Repeatability

The repeatability varies according to flash-point range and the test method used; maximum 2 oC.

1.5.2.   Sensitivity

The sensitivity depends on the test method used.

1.5.3.   Specificity

The specificity of some test methods is limited to certain flash-point ranges and subject to substance-related data (e.g. high viscosity).

1.6.   DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD

1.6.1.   Preparations

A sample of the test substance is placed in a test apparatus according to 1.6.3.1 and/or 1.6.3.2.

For safety, it is recommended that a method utilising a small sample size, circa 2 cm3, be used for energetic or toxic substances.

1.6.2.   Test conditions

The apparatus should, as far as is consistent with safety, be placed in a draught-free position.

1.6.3.   Performance of the test

1.6.3.1.   Equilibrium method

See ISO 1516, ISO 3680, ISO 1523, ISO 3679.

1.6.3.2.   Non-equilibrium method

See BS 2000 part 170, NF M07-011, NF T66-009.

See EN 57, DIN 51755 part 1 (for temperatures from 5 to 65 oC), DIN 51755 part 2 (for temperatures below 5 oC), NF M07-036.

See ASTM D 56.

See ISO 2719, EN 11, DIN 51758, ASTM D 93, BS 2000-34, NF M07-019.

When the flash-point, determined by a non-equilibrium method in 1.6.3.2, is found to be 0 ± 2 oC, 21 ± 2 oC or 55 ± 2 oC, it should be confirmed by an equilibrium method using the same apparatus.

Only the methods which can give the temperature of the flash-point may be used for a notification.

To determine the flash-point of viscous liquids (paints, gums and similar) containing solvents, only apparatus and test methods suitable for determining the flash-point of viscous liquids may be used.

See ISO 3679, ISO 3680, ISO 1523, DIN 53213 part 1.

3.   REPORTING

The test report shall, if possible, include the following information:

4.   REFERENCES

None.

A.10.   FLAMMABILITY (SOLIDS)

1.   METHOD

1.1.   INTRODUCTION

It is useful to have preliminary information on potentially explosive properties of the substance before performing this test.

This test should only be applied to powdery, granular or paste-like substances.

In order not to include all substances which can be ignited but only those which burn rapidly or those whose burning behaviour is in any way especially dangerous, only substances whose burning velocity exceeds a certain limiting value are considered to be highly flammable.

It can be especially dangerous if incandescence propagates through a metal powder because of the difficulties in extinguishing a fire. Metal powders should be considered highly flammable if they support spread of incandescence throughout the mass within a specified time.

1.2.   DEFINITION AND UNITS

Burning time expressed in seconds.

1.3.   REFERENCE SUBSTANCES

Not specified.

1.4.   PRINCIPLE OF THE METHOD

The substance is formed into an unbroken strip or powder train about 250 mm long and a preliminary screening test performed to determine if, on ignition by a gas flame, propagation by burning with flame or smouldering occurs. If propagation over 200 mm of the train occurs within a specified time then a full test programme to determine the burning rate is carried out.

1.5.   QUALITY CRITERIA

Not stated.

1.6.   DESCRIPTION OF METHOD

1.6.1.   Preliminary screening test

The substance is formed into an unbroken strip or powder train about 250 mm long by 20 mm wide by 10 mm high on a non-combustible, non-porous and low heat-conducting base plate. A hot flame from a gas burner (minimum diameter 5 mm) is applied to one end of the powder train until the powder ignites or for a maximum of two minutes (five minutes for powders of metals or metal-alloys). It should be noted whether combustion propagates along 200 mm of the train within the 4 minutes test period (or 40 minutes for metal powders). If the substance does not ignite and propagate combustion either by burning with flame or smouldering along 200 mm of the powder train within the four minutes (or 40 minutes) test period, then the substance should not be considered as highly flammable and no further testing is required. If the substance propagates burning of a 200 mm length of the powder train in less than four minutes, or less than 40 minutes for metal powders, the procedure described below (point 1.6.2. and following) should be carried out.

1.6.2.   Burning rate test

1.6.2.1.   Preparation

Powdery or granular substances are loosely filled into a mould 250 mm long with a triangular cross-section of inner height 10 mm and width 20 mm. On both sides of the mould in a longitudinal direction two metal plates are mounted as lateral limitations which project 2 mm beyond the upper edge of the triangular cross section (figure). The mould is then dropped three times from a height of 2 cm onto a solid surface. If necessary the mould is then filled up again. The lateral limitations are then removed and the excess substance scraped off. A non-combustible, non-porous and low heat-conducting base plate is placed on top of the mould, the apparatus inverted and the mould removed.

Paste-like substances are spread on a non-combustible, non-porous and low heat-conducting base plate in the form of a rope 250 mm in length with a cross section of about 1 cm2.

1.6.2.2.   Test conditions

In the case a moisture-sensitive substance, the test should be carried out as quickly as possible after its removal from the container.

1.6.2.3.   Performance of the test

Arrange the pile across the draught in a fume cupboard.

The air-speed should be sufficient to prevent fumes escaping into the laboratory and should not be varied during the test. A draught screen should be erected around the apparatus.

A hot flame from a gas burner (minimum diameter of 5 mm) is used to ignite the pile at one end. When the pile has burned a distance of 80 mm, the rate of burning over the next 100 mm is measured.

The test is performed six times, using a clean cool plate each time, unless a positive result is observed earlier.

2.   DATA

The burning time from the preliminary screening test (1.6.1) and the shortest burning time in up to six tests (1.6.2.3) are relevant for evaluation.

3.   REPORTING

3.1.   TEST REPORT

The test report shall, if possible, include the following information:

3.2.   INTERPRETATION OF THE RESULT

Powdery, granular or paste-1ike substances are to be considered as highly flammable when the time of burning in any tests carried out according to the test procedure described in 1.6.2 is less than 45 seconds. Powders of metals or metal-alloys are considered to be highly flammable when they can be ignited and the flame or the zone of reaction spreads over the whole sample in 10 minutes or less.

4.   REFERENCES

NF T 20-042 (September 85) Chemical products for industrial use. Determination of the flammability of solids.

Appendix

Figure

Mould and accessories for the preparation of the pile

(All dimensions in millimetres)

A.11.   FLAMMABILITY (GASES)

1.   METHOD

1.1.   INTRODUCTION

This method allows a determination of whether gases mixed with air at room temperature (circa 20 oC) and atmospheric pressure are flammable and, if so, over what range of concentrations. Mixtures of increasing concentrations of the test gas with air are exposed to an electrical spark and it is observed whether ignition occurs.

1.2.   DEFINITION AND UNITS

The range of flammability is the range of concentration between the lower and the upper explosion limits. The lower and the upper explosion limits are those limits of concentration of the flammable gas in admixture with air at which propagation of a flame does not occur.

1.3.   REFERENCE SUBSTANCES

Not specified.

1.4.   PRINCIPLE OF THE METHOD

The concentration of gas in air is increased step by step and the mixture is exposed at each stage to an electrical spark.

1.5.   QUALITY CRITERIA

Not stated.

1.6.   DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD

1.6.1.   Apparatus

The test vessel is an upright glass cylinder having a minimum inner diameter of 50 mm and a minimum height of 300 mm. The ignition electrodes are separated by a distance of 3 to 5 mm and are placed 60 mm above the bottom of the cylinder. The cylinder is fitted with a pressure-release opening. The apparatus has to be shielded to restrict any explosion damage.

A standing induction spark of 0,5 sec. duration, which is generated from a high voltage transformer with an output voltage of 10 to 15 kV (maximum of power input 300 W), is used as the ignition source. An example of a suitable apparatus is described in reference (2).

1.6.2.   Test conditions

The test must be performed at room temperature (circa 20 oC).

1.6.3.   Performance of the test

Using proportioning pumps, a known concentration of gas in air is introduced into the glass cylinder. A spark is passed through the mixture and it is observed whether or not a flame detaches itself from the ignition source and propagates independently. The gas concentration is varied in steps of 1 % vol. until ignition occurs as described above.

If the chemical structure of the gas indicates that it would be non-flammable and the composition of the stoichiometric mixture with air can be calculated, then only mixtures in the range from 10 % less than the stoichiometric composition to 10 % greater than this composition need be tested in 1 % steps.

2.   DATA

The occurrence of flame propagation is the only relevant information data for the determination of this property.

3.   REPORTING

The test report shall, if possible, include the following information:

4.   REFERENCES

A.12.   FLAMMABILITY (CONTACT WITH WATER)

1.   METHOD

1.1.   INTRODUCTION

This test method can be used to determine whether the reaction of a substance with water or damp air leads to the development of dangerous amounts of gas or gases which may be highly flammable.

The test method can be applied to both solid and liquid substances. This method is not applicable to substances which spontaneously ignite when in contact with air.

1.2.   DEFINITIONS AND UNITS

Highly flammable: substances which, in contact with water or damp air, evolve highly flammable gases in dangerous quantities at a minimum rate of 1 litre/kg per hour.

1.3.   PRINCIPLE OF THE METHOD

The substance is tested according to the step by step sequence described below; if ignition occurs at any step, no further testing is necessary. If it is known that the substance does not react violently with water then proceed to step 4 (1.3.4).

1.3.1.   Step 1

The test substance is placed in a trough containing distilled water at 20 oC and it is noted whether or not the evolved gas ignites.

1.3.2.   Step 2

The test substance is placed on a filter paper floating on the surface of a dish containing distilled water at 20 oC and it is noted whether or not the evolved gas ignites. The filter paper is merely to keep the substance in one place to increase the chances of ignition.

1.3.3.   Step 3

The test substance is made into a pile approximately 2 cm high and 3 cm diameter. A few drops of water are added to the pile and it is noted whether or not the evolved gas ignites.

1.3.4.   Step 4

The test substance is mixed with distilled water at 20 oC and the rate of evolution of gas is measured over a period of seven hours, at one-hour intervals. If the rate of evolution is erratic, or is increasing, after seven hours, the measuring time should be extended to a maximum time of five days. The test may be stopped if the rate at any time exceeds 1 litre/kg per hour.

1.4.   REFERENCE SUBSTANCES

Not specified.

1.5.   QUALITY CR1TERIA

Not stated.

1.6.   DESCRIPTION OF METHODS

1.6.1.   Step 1

1.6.1.1.   Test conditions

The test is performed at room temperature (circa 20 oC).

1.6.1.2.   Performance of the test

A small quantity (approximately 2 mm diameter) of the test substance should be placed in a trough containing distilled water. A note should be made of whether (i) any gas is evolved and (ii) if ignition of the gas occurs. If ignition of the gas occurs then no further testing of the substance is needed because the substance is regarded as hazardous.

1.6.2.   Step 2

1.6.2.1.   Apparatus

A filter-paper is floated flat on the surface of distilled water in any suitable vessel, e.g. a 100 mm diameter evaporating dish.

1.6.2.2.   Test conditions

The test is performed at room temperature (circa 20 oC).

1.6.2.3.   Performance of the test

A small quantity of the test substance (approximately 2 mm diameter) is placed onto the centre of the filter-paper. A note should be made of whether (i) any gas is evolved and (ii) if ignition of the gas occurs. If ignition of the gas occurs then no further testing of the substance is needed because the substance is regarded as hazardous.

1.6.3.   Step 3

1.6.3.1.   Test conditions

The test is performed at room temperature (circa 20 oC).

1.6.3.2.   Performance of the test

The test substance is made into a pile approximately 2 cm high and 3 cm diameter with an indentation in the top. A few drops of water are added to the hollow and a note is made of whether (i) any gas is evolved and (ii) if ignition of the gas occurs. If ignition of the gas occurs then no further testing of the substance is needed because the substance is regarded as hazardous.

1.6.4.   Step 4

1.6.4.1.   Apparatus

The apparatus is set up as shown in the figure.

1.6.4.2.   Test conditions

Inspect the container of the test substance for any powder < 500 μm (particle size). If the powder constitutes more than 1 % w/w of the total, or if the sample is friable, then the whole of the substance should be ground to a powder before testing to allow for a reduction in particle size during storage and handling; otherwise the substance is to be tested as received. The test should be performed at room temperature (circa 20 oC) and atmospheric pressure.

1.6.4.3.   Performance of the test

10 to 20 ml of water are put into the dropping funnel of the apparatus and 10 g of substance are put in the conical flask. The volume of gas evolved can be measured by any suitable means. The tap of the dropping funnel is opened to let the water into the conical flask and a stop watch is started. The gas evolution is measured each hour during a seven hour period. If, during this period, the gas evolution is erratic, or if, at the end of this period, the rate of gas evolution is increasing, then measurements should be continued for up to five days. If, at any time of measurement, the rate of gas evolution exceeds 1 litre/kg per hour, the test can be discontinued. This test should be performed in triplicate.

If the chemical identity of the gas is unknown, the gas should be analysed. When the gas contains highly flammable components and it is unknown whether the whole mixture is highly flammable, a mixture of the same composition has to be prepared and tested according to the method A.11.

2.   DATA

The substance is considered hazardous if:

3.   REPORTING

The test report shall, if possible, include the following information:

4.   REFERENCES

Appendix

Figure

Apparatus

A.13.   PYROPHORIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS

1.   METHOD

1.1.   INTRODUCTION

The test procedure is applicable to solid or liquid substances, which, in small amounts, will ignite spontaneously a short time after coming into contact with air at room temperature (circa 20 oC).

Substances which need to be exposed to air for hours or days at room temperature or at elevated temperatures before ignition occurs are not covered by this test method.

1.2.   DEFINITIONS AND UNITS

Substances are considered to have pyrophoric properties if they ignite or cause charring under the conditions described in 1.6.

The auto-flammability of liquids may also need to be tested using method A.15. Auto-ignition temperature (liquids and gases).

1.3.   REFERENCE SUBSTANCES

Not specified.

1.4.   PRINCIPLE OF THE METHOD

The substance, whether solid or liquid, is added to an inert carrier and brought into contact with air at ambient temperature for a period of five minutes. If liquid substances do not ignite then they are absorbed onto filter paper and exposed to air at ambient temperature (circa 20 oC) for five minutes. If a solid or liquid ignites, or a liquid ignites or chars a filter paper, then the substance is considered to be pyrophoric.

1.5.   QUALITY CRITERIA

Repeatability: because of the importance in relation to safety, a single positive result is sufficient for the substance to be considered pyrophoric.

1.6.   DESCRIPTION OF THE TEST METHOD

1.6.1.   Apparatus

A porcelain cup of circa 10 cm diameter is filled with diatomaceous earth to a height of about 5 mm at room temperature (circa 20 oC).

Note:

Diatomaceous earth or any other comparable inert substance which is generally obtainable shall be taken as representative of soil onto which the test substance might be spilled in the event of an accident.

Dry filter paper is required for testing liquids which do not ignite on contact with air when in contact with an inert carrier.

1.6.2.   Performance of the test

(a)   Powdery solids

1 to 2 cm3 of the substance to be tested is poured from circa 1 m height onto a non-combustible surface and it is observed whether the substance ignites during dropping or within five minutes of settling.

The test is performed six times unless ignition occurs;

(b)   liquids

Circa 5 cm3 of the liquid to be tested is poured into the prepared porcelain cup and it is observed whether the substance ignites within five minutes.

If no ignition occurs in the six tests, perform the following tests:

A 0,5 ml test sample is delivered from a syringe to an indented filter paper and it is observed whether ignition or charring of the filter paper occurs within five minutes of the liquid being added. The test is performed three times unless ignition or charring occurs.

2.   DATA

2.1.   TREATMENT OF RESULTS

Testing can be discontinued as soon as a positive result occurs in any of the tests.

2.2.   EVALUATION

If the substance ignites within five minutes when added to an inert carrier and exposed to air, or a liquid substance chars or ignites a filter paper within five minutes when added and exposed to air, it is considered to be pyrophoric.

3.   REPORTING

The test report shall, if possible, include the following information:

4.   REFERENCES

A.14.   EXPLOSIVE PROPERTIES

1.   METHOD

1.1.   INTRODUCTION

The method provides a scheme of testing to determine whether a solid or a pasty substance presents a danger of explosion when submitted to the effect of a flame (thermal sensitivity), or to shock or friction (sensitivity to mechanical stimuli), and whether a liquid substance presents a danger of explosion when submitted to the effect of a flame or shock.

The method comprises three parts:

The method yields data to assess the likelihood of initiating an explosion by means of certain common stimuli. The method is not intended to ascertain whether a substance is capable of exploding under any conditions.

The method is appropriate for determining whether a substance will present a danger of explosion (thermal and mechanical sensitivity) under the particular conditions specified in the directive. It is based on a number of types of apparatus which are widely used internationally (1) and which usually give meaningful results. It is recognised that the method is not definitive. Alternative apparatus to that specified may be used provided that it is internationally recognised and the results can be adequately correlated with those from the specified apparatus.

The tests need not be performed when available thermodynamic information (e.g. heat of formation, heat of decomposition) and/or absence of certain reactive groups (2) in the structural formula establishes beyond reasonable doubt that the substance is incapable of rapid decomposition with evolution of gases or release of heat (i.e. the material does not present any risk of explosion). A test of mechanical sensitivity with respect to friction is not required for liquids.

1.2.   DEFINITIONS AND UNITS

Explosive:

Substances which may explode under the effect of flame or which are sensitive to shock or friction in the specified apparatus (or are more mechanically sensitive than 1,3 -dinitrobenzene in alternative apparatus).

1.3.   REFERENCE SUBSTANCES

1,3-dinitrobenzene, technical crystalline product sieved to pass 0,5 mm, for the friction and shock methods.

Perhydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX, hexogen, cyclonite — CAS 121-82-4), recrystallised from aqueous cyclohexanone, wet-sieved through a 250 μm and retained on a 150 μm sieve and dried at 103 ± 2 oC (for four hours) for the second series of friction and shock tests.

1.4.   PRINCIPLE OF THE METHOD

Preliminary tests are necessary to establish safe conditions for the performance of the three tests of sensitivity.

1.4.1.   Safety-in-handling tests (3)

For safety reasons, before performing the main tests, very small samples (circa 10 mg) of the substance are subjected to heating without confinement in a gas flame, to shock in any convenient form of apparatus and to friction by the use of a mallet against an anvil or any form of friction machine. The objective is to ascertain if the substance is so sensitive and explosive that the prescribed sensitivity tests, particularly that of thermal sensitivity, should be performed with special precautions so as to avoid injury to the operator.

1.4.2.   Thermal sensitivity

The method involves heating the substance in a steel tube, closed by orifice plates with differing diameters of hole, to determine whether the substance is liable to explode under conditions of intense heat and defined confinement.

1.4.3.   Mechanical sensitivity (shock)

The method involves subjecting the substance to the shock from a specified mass dropped from a specified height.

1.4.4.   Mechanical sensitivity (friction)

The method involves subjecting solid or pasty substances to friction between standard surfaces under specified conditions of load and relative motion.

1.5.   QUALITY CRITERIA

Not stated.

1.6.   DESCRIPTION OF METHOD

1.6.1.   Thermal sensitivity (effect of a flame)

1.6.1.1.   Apparatus

The apparatus consists of a non-reusable steel tube with its re-usable closing device (figure 1), installed in a heating and protective device. Each tube is deep-drawn from sheet steel (see Appendix) and has an internal diameter of 24 mm, a length of 75 mm and wall thickness of 0,5 mm. The tubes are flanged at the open end to enable them to be closed by the orifice plate assembly. This consists of a pressure-resistant orifice plate, with a central hole, secured firmly to a tube using a two-part screw joint (nut and threaded collar). The nut and threaded collar are made from chromium-manganese steel (see Appendix) which is spark-free up to 800 oC. The orifice plates are 6 mm thick, made from heat-resistant steel (see Appendix), and are available with a range of diameters of opening.

1.6.1.2.   Test conditions

Normally the substance is tested as received although in certain cases, e.g. if pressed, cast or otherwise condensed, it may be necessary to test the substance after crushing.

For solids, the mass of material to be used in each test is determined using a two-stage dry run procedure. A tared tube is filled with 9 cm3 of substance and the substance tamped with 80 N force applied to the total cross-section of the tube. For reasons of safety or in cases where the physical form of the sample can be changed by compression other filling procedures may be used; e.g. if the substance is very friction sensitive then tamping is not appropriate. If the material is compressible then more is added and tamped until the tube is filled to 55 mm from the top. The total mass used to fill the tube to the 55 mm level is determined and two further increments, each tamped with 80 N force, are added. Material is then either added with tamping, or taken out, as required, to leave the tube filled to a level 15 mm from the top. A second dry run is performed, starting with a tamped quantity of a third of the total mass found in the first dry run. Two more of these increments are added with 80 N tamping and the level of the substance in the tube adjusted to 15 mm from the top by addition or subtraction of material as required. The amount of solid determined in the second dry run is used for each trial; filling being performed in three equal amounts, each compressed to 9 cm3 by whatever force is necessary. (This may be facilitated by the use of spacing rings).

Liquids and gels are loaded into the tube to a height of 60 mm taking particular care with gels to prevent the formation of voids. The threaded collar is slipped onto the tube from below, the appropriate orifice plate is inserted and the nut tightened after applying some molybdenum disulphide based lubricant. It is essential to check that none of the substance is trapped between the flange and the plate, or in the threads.

Heating is provided by propane taken from an industrial cylinder, fitted with a pressure regulator (60 to 70 mbar), through a meter and evenly distributed (as indicated by visual observation of the flames from the burners) by a manifold to four burners. The burners are located around the test chamber as shown in figure 1. The four burners have a combined consumption of about 3,2 litres of propane per minute. Alternative fuel gases and burners may be used but the heating rate must be as specified in figure 3. For all apparatus, the heating rate must be checked periodically using tubes filled with dibutyl phthalate as indicated in figure 3.

1.6.1.3.   Performance of the tests

Each test is performed until either the tube is fragmented or the tube has been heated for five minutes. A test resulting in the fragmentation of the tube into three or more pieces, which in some cases may be connected to each other by narrow strips of metal as illustrated in figure 2, is evaluated as giving an explosion. A test resulting in fewer fragments or no fragmentation is regarded as not giving an explosion.

A series of three tests with a 6,0 mm diameter orifice plate is first performed and, if no explosions are obtained, a second series of three tests is performed with a 2,0 mm diameter orifice plate. If an explosion occurs during either test series then no further tests are required.

1.6.1.4.   Evaluation

The test result is considered positive if an explosion occurs in either of the above series of tests.

1.6.2.   Mechanical sensitivity (shock)

1.6.2.1.   Apparatus (figure 4)

The essential parts of a typical fall hammer apparatus are a cast steel block with base, anvil, column, guides, drop weights, release device and a sample holder. The steel anvil 100 mm (diameter) × 70 mm (height) is screwed to the top of a steel block 230 mm (length) × 250 mm (width) × 200 mm (height) with a cast base 450 mm (length) × 450 mm (width) × 60 mm (height). A column, made from seamless drawn steel tube, is secured in a holder screwed on to the back of the steel block. Four screws anchor the apparatus to a solid concrete block 60 × 60 × 60 cm such that the guide rails are absolutely vertical and the drop weight falls freely. 5 and 10 kg weights, made from solid steel, are available for use. The striking head of each weight is of hardened steel, HRC 60 to 63, and has a minimum diameter of 25 mm.

The sample under test is enclosed in a shock device consisting of two coaxial solid steel cylinders, one above the other, in a hollow cylindrical steel guide ring. The solid steel cylinders should be of 10 (- 0,003 , - 0,005 ) mm diameter and 10 mm height and have polished surfaces, rounded edges (radius of curvature 0,5 mm) and a hardness of HRC 58 to 65. The hollow cylinder must have an external diameter of 16 mm, a polished bore of 10 (+ 0,005 , + 0,010 ) mm and a height of 13 mm. The shock device is assembled on an intermediate anvil (26 mm diameter and 26 mm height) made of steel and centred by a ring with perforations to allow escape of fumes.

1.6.2.2.   Test conditions

The sample volume should be 40 mm3, or a volume to suit any alternative apparatus. Solid substances should be tested in the dry state and prepared as follows:

Substances normally supplied as pastes should be tested in the dry state where possible or, in any case, following removal of the maximum possible amount of diluent. Liquid substances are tested with a 1 mm gap between the upper and lower steel cylinders.

1.6.2.3.   Performance of the tests

A series of six tests are performed dropping the 10 kg mass from 0,40 m (40 J). If an explosion is obtained during the six tests at 40 J, a further series of six tests, dropping a 5 kg mass from 0,15 m (7,5 J), must be performed. In other apparatus, the sample is compared with the chosen reference substance using an established procedure (e.g. up-and-down technique etc.).

1.6.2.4.   Evaluation

The test result is considered positive if an explosion (bursting into flame and/or a report is equivalent to explosion) occurs at least once in any of the tests with the specified shock apparatus or the sample is more sensitive than 1,3-dinitrobenzene or RDX in an alternative shock test.

1.6.3.   Mechanical sensitivity (friction)

1.6.3.1.   Apparatus (figure 5)

The friction apparatus consists of a cast steel base plate on which is mounted the friction device. This consists of a fixed porcelain peg and moving porcelain plate. The porcelain plate is held in a carriage which runs in two guides. The carriage is connected to an electric motor via a connecting rod, an eccentric cam and suitable gearing such that the porcelain plate is moved, once only, back and forth beneath the porcelain peg for a distance of 10 mm. The porcelain peg may be loaded with, for example, 120 or 360 newtons.

The flat porcelain plates are made from white technical porcelain (roughness 9 to 32 μm) and have the dimensions 25 mm (length) × 25 mm (width) × 5 mm (height). The cylindrical porcelain peg is also made of white technical porcelain and is 15 mm long, has a diameter of 10 mm and roughened spherical end surfaces with a radius of curvature of 10 mm.

1.6.3.2.   Test conditions

The sample volume should be 10 mm3 or a volume to suit any alternative apparatus.

Solid substances are tested in the dry state and prepared as follows:

Substances normally supplied as pastes should be tested in the dry state where possible. If the substance cannot be prepared in the dry state, the paste (following removal of the maximum possible amount of diluent) is tested as a 0,5 mm thick, 2 mm wide, 10 mm long film, prepared with a former.

1.6.3.3.   Performance of the tests

The porcelain peg is brought onto the sample under test and the load applied. When carrying out the test, the sponge marks of the porcelain plate must lie transversely to the direction of the movement. Care must be taken that the peg rests on the sample, that sufficient test material lies under the peg and also that the plate moves correctly under the peg. For pasty substances, a 0,5 mm thick gauge with a 2 × 10 mm slot is used to apply the substance to the plate. The porcelain plate has to move 10 mm forwards and backwards under the porcelain peg in a time of 0,44 seconds. Each part of the surface of the plate and peg must only be used once; the two ends of each peg will serve for two trials and the two surfaces of a plate will each serve for three trials.

A series of six tests are performed with a 360 N loading. If a positive event is obtained during these six tests, a further series of six tests must be performed with a 120 N loading. In other apparatus, the sample is compared with the chosen reference substance using an established procedure (e.g. up-and-down technique, etc.).

1.6.3.4.   Evaluation

The test result is considered positive if an explosion (crepitation and/or a report or bursting into flame are equivalent to explosion) occurs at least once in any of the tests with the specified friction apparatus or satisfies the equivalent criteria in an alternative friction test.

2.   DATA

In principle, a substance is considered to present a danger of explosion in the sense of the directive if a positive result is obtained in the thermal, shock or friction sensitivity test.

3.   REPORTING

3.1.   TEST REPORT

The test report shall, if possible, include the following information:

3.2.   INTERPRETATION AND EVALUATION OF RESULTS

The test report should mention any results which are considered false, anomalous or unrepresentative. If any of the results should be discounted, an explanation and the results of any alternative or supplementary testing should be given. Unless an anomalous result can be explained, it must be accepted at face value and used to classify the substance accordingly.

4.   REFERENCES

Appendix

Example of material specification for thermal sensitivity test (see DIN 1623)

Figure 1

Thermal sensitivity test apparatus

(all dimensions in millimetres)

Figure 2

Thermal sensitivity test

(example of fragmentation)

Figure 3

Heating rate calibration for thermal sensitivity test

Temperature/time curve obtained on heating dibutyl phtalate (27 cm3) in a closed (1,5 mm orifice plate) tube using a propane flow rate of 3,2 litre/minute. The temperature is measured with a 1 mm diameter stainless steel sheathed chromel/alumel thermocouple, placed centrally 43 mm below the rim of the tube. The heating rate between 135 oC and 285 oC should be between 185 and 215 K/minute.

Figure 4

Shock test apparatus

(all dimensions in millimetres)

Figure 4

Continued

Figure 5

Friction sensitivity apparatus

A.15.   AUTO-IGNITION TEMPERATURE (LIQUIDS AND GASES)

1.   METHOD

1.1.   INTRODUCTION

Explosive substances and substances which ignite spontaneously in contact with air at ambient temperature should not be submitted to this test. The test procedure is applicable to gases, liquids and vapours which, in the presence of air, can be ignited by a hot surface.

The auto-ignition temperature can be considerably reduced by the presence of catalytic impurities, by the surface material or by a higher volume of the test vessel.

1.2.   DEFINITIONS AND UNITS

The degree of auto-ignitability is expressed in terms of the auto-ignition temperature. The auto-ignition temperature is the lowest temperature at which the test substance will ignite when mixed with air under the conditions defined in the test method.

1.3.   REFERENCE SUBSTANCES

Reference substances are cited in the standards (see 1.6.3). They should primarily serve to check the performance of the method from time to time and to allow comparison with results from other methods.

1.4.   PRINCIPLE OF THE METHOD

The method determines the minimum temperature of the inner surface of an enclosure that will result in ignition of a gas, vapour or liquid injected into the enclosure.

1.5.   QUALITY CRITERIA

The repeatability varies according to the range of auto-ignition temperatures and the test method used.

The sensitivity and specificity depend on the test method used.

1.6.   DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD

1.6.1.   Apparatus

The apparatus is described in the method referred to in 1.6.3.

1.6.2.   Test conditions

A sample of the test substance is tested according to the method referred to in 1.6.3.

1.6.3.   Performance of the test

See IEC 79-4, DIN 51794, ASTM-E 659-78, BS 4056, NF T 20-037.

2.   DATA

Record the test-temperature, atmospheric pressure, quantity of sample used and time-1ag until ignition occurs.

3.   REPORTING

The test report shall, if possible, include the following information:

4.   REFERENCES

None.

A.16.   RELATIVE SELF-IGNITION TEMPERATURE FOR SOLIDS

1.   METHOD

1.1.   INTRODUCTION

Explosive substances and substances which ignite spontaneously in contact with air at ambient temperature should not be submitted to this test.

The purpose of this test is to provide preliminary information on the auto-flammability of solid substances at elevated temperatures.

If the heat developed either by a reaction of the substance with oxygen or by exothermic decomposition is not lost rapidly enough to the surroundings, self-heating leading to self-ignition occurs. Self-ignition therefore occurs when the rate of heat-production exceeds the rate of heat loss.

The test procedure is useful as a preliminary screening test for solid substances. In view of the complex nature of the ignition and combustion of solids, the self-ignition temperature determined according to this test method should be used for comparison purposes only.

1.2.   DEFINITIONS AND UNITS

The self-ignition temperature as obtained by this method is the minimum ambient temperature expressed in oC at which a certain volume of a substance will ignite under defined conditions.

1.3.   REFERENCE SUBSTANCE

None.

1.4.   PRINCIPLE OF THE METHOD

A certain volume of the substance under test is placed in an oven at room temperature; the temperature/time curve relating to conditions in the centre of the sample is recorded while the temperature of the oven is increased to 400 oC, or to the melting point if lower, at a rate of 0,5 oC/min. For the purpose of this test, the temperature of the oven at which the sample temperature reaches 400 oC by self-heating is called the self-ignition temperature.

1.5.   QUALITY CRITERIA

None.

1.6.   DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD

1.6.1.   Apparatus

1.6.1.1.   Oven

A temperature-programmed laboratory oven (volume about 2 litres) fitted with natural air circulation and explosion relief. In order to avoid a potential explosion risk, any decomposition gases must not be allowed to come into contact with the electric heating elements.

1.6.1.2.   Wire mesh cube

A piece of stainless steel wire mesh with 0,045 mm openings should be cut according to the pattern in figure 1. The mesh should be folded and secured with wire into an open-topped cube.

1.6.1.3.   Thermocouples

Suitable thermocouples.

1.6.1.4.   Recorder

Any two-channel recorder calibrated from 0 to 600 oC or corresponding voltage.

1.6.2.   Test conditions

Substances are tested as received.

1.6.3.   Performance of the test

The cube is filled with the substance to be tested and is tapped gently, adding more of the substance until the cube is completely full. The cube is then suspended in the centre of the oven at room temperature. One thermocouple is placed at the centre of the cube and the other between the cube and the oven wall to record the oven temperature.

The temperatures of the oven and sample are continuously recorded while the temperature of the oven is increased to 400 oC, or to the melting point if lower, at a rate of 0,5 oC/min.

When the substance ignites the sample thermocouple will show a very sharp temperature rise above the oven temperature.

2.   DATA

The temperature of the oven at which the sample temperature reaches 400 oC by self-heating is relevant for evaluation (see figure 2).

3.   REPORTING

The test report shall, if possible, include the following information:

4.   REFERENCES

NF T 20-036 (September 85) Chemical products for industrial use. Determination of the relative temperature of the spontaneous flammability of solids.

Figure 1

Pattern of 20 mm test cube

Figure 2

Typical temperature/time curve

A.17.   OXIDISING PROPERTIES (SOLIDS)

1.   METHOD

1.1.   INTRODUCTION

It is useful to have preliminary information on any potentially explosive properties of the substance before performing this test.

This test is not applicable to liquids, gases, explosive or highly flammable substances, or organic peroxides.

This test need not be performed when examination of the structural formula establishes beyond reasonable doubt that the substance is incapable of reacting exothermically with a combustible material.

In order to ascertain if the test should be performed with special precautions, a preliminary test should be performed.

1.2.   DEFINITION AND UNITS

Burning time: reaction time, in seconds, taken for the reaction zone to travel along a pile, following the procedure described in 1.6.

Burning rate: expressed in millimetres per second.

Maximum burning rate: the highest value of the burning rates obtained with mixtures containing 10 to 90 % by weight of oxidiser.

1.3.   REFERENCE SUBSTANCE

Barium nitrate (analytical grade) is used as reference substance for the test and the preliminary test.

The reference mixture is that mixture of barium nitrate with powdered cellulose, prepared according to 1.6, which has the maximum burning rate (usually a mixture with 60 % barium nitrate by weight).

1.4.   PRINCIPLE OF THE METHOD

A preliminary test is carried out in the interests of safety. No further testing is required when the preliminary test clearly indicates that the test substance has oxidising properties. When this is not the case, the substance should then be subject to the full test.

In the full test, the substance to be tested and a defined combustible substance will be mixed in various ratios. Each mixture is then formed into a pile and the pile is ignited at one end. The maximum burning rate determined is compared with the maximum burning rate of the reference mixture.

1.5.   QUALITY CRITERIA

If required, any method of grinding and mixing is valid provided that the difference in the maximum rate of burning in the six separate tests differs from the arithmetic mean value by no more than 10 %.

1.6.   DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD

1.6.1.   Preparation

1.6.1.1.   Test substance

Reduce the test sample to a particle size < 0,125 mm using the following procedure: sieve the test substance, grind the remaining fraction, repeat the procedure until the whole test portion has passed the sieve.

Any grinding and sieving method satisfying the quality criteria may be used.

Before preparing the mixture the substance is dried at 105 oC, until constant weight is obtained. If the decomposition temperature of the substance to be tested is below 105 oC, the substance has to be dried at a suitable lower temperature.

1.6.1.2.   Combustible substance

Powdered cellulose is used as a combustible substance. The cellulose should be a type used for thin-layer chromatography or column chromatography. A type with fibre-lengths of more than 85 % between 0,020 and 0,075 mm has proved to be suitable. The cellulose powder is passed through a sieve with a mesh-size of 0,125 mm. The same batch of cellulose is to be used throughout the test.

Before preparing the mixture, the powdered cellulose is dried at 105 oC until constant weight is obtained.

If wood-meal is used in the preliminary test, then prepare a soft-wood wood-meal by collecting the portion which passes through a sieve mesh of 1,6 mm, mix thoroughly, then dry at 105 oC for four hours in a layer not more than 25 mm thick. Cool and store in an air-tight container filled as full as practicable until required, preferably within 24 hours of drying.

1.6.1.3.   Ignition source

A hot flame from a gas burner (minimum diameter 5 mm) should be used as the ignition source. If another ignition source is used (e.g. when testing in an inert atmosphere), the description and the justification should be reported.

1.6.2.   Performance of the test

Note:

Mixtures of oxidisers with cellulose or wood-meal must be treated as potentially explosive and handled with due care.

1.6.2.1.   Preliminary test

The dried substance is thoroughly mixed with the dried cellulose or wood-meal in the proportions 2 of test substance to 1 of cellulose or wood-meal by weight and the mixture is formed into a small cone-shaped pile of dimensions 3,5 cm (diameter of base) × 2,5 cm (height) by filling, without tamping, a cone-shaped former (e.g. a laboratory glass funnel with the stem plugged).

The pile is placed on a cool, non-combustible, non-porous and low heat-conducting base plate. The test should be carried out in a fume cupboard as in 1.6.2.2.

The ignition source is put in contact with the cone. The vigour and duration of the resultant reaction are observed and recorded.

The substance is to be considered as oxidising if the reaction is vigorous.

In any case where the result is open to doubt, it is then necessary to complete the full train test described below.

1.6.2.2.   Train test

Prepare oxidiser cellulose-mixtures containing 10 to 90 % weight of oxidiser in 10 % increments. For borderline cases, intermediate oxidiser cellulose mixtures should be used to obtain the maximum burning rate more precisely.

The pile is formed by means of a mould. The mould is made of metal, has a length of 250 mm and a triangular cross-section with an inner height of 10 mm and an inner width of 20 mm. On both sides of the mould, in the longitudinal direction, two metal plates are mounted as lateral limitations which project 2 mm beyond the upper edge of the triangular cross-section (figure). This arrangement is loosely filled with a slight excess of mixture. After dropping the mould once from a height of 2 cm onto a solid surface, the remaining excess substance is scraped off with an obliquely positioned sheet. The lateral limitations are removed and the remaining powder is smoothed, using a roller. A non-combustible, non-porous and low heat-conducting base plate is then placed on the top of the mould, the apparatus inverted and the mould removed.

Arrange the pile across the draught in a fume cupboard.

The air-speed should be sufficient to prevent fumes escaping into the laboratory and should not be varied during the test. A draught screen should be erected around the apparatus.

Due to hygroscopicity of cellulose and of some substances to be tested, the test should be carried out as quickly as possible.

Ignite one end of the pile by touching with the flame.

Measure the time of reaction over a distance of 200 mm after the reaction zone has propagated an initial distance of 30 mm.

The test is performed with the reference substance and at least once with each one of the range of mixtures of the test substance with cellulose.

If the maximum burning rate is found to be significantly greater than that from the reference mixture, the test can be stopped; otherwise the test should be repeated five times for each of the three mixtures giving the fastest burning rate.

If the result is suspected of being a false positive, then the test should be repeated using an inert substance with a similar particle size, such as kieselguhr, in place of cellulose. Alternatively, the test substance cellulose mixture, having the fastest burning rate, should be retested in an inert atmosphere (< 2 % v/v oxygen content).

2.   DATA

For safety reasons the maximum burning rate — not the mean value — shall be considered to be the characteristic oxidising property of the substance under test.

The highest value of burning rate within a run of six tests of a given mixture is relevant for evaluation.

Plot a graph of the highest value of burning rate for each mixture versus the oxidiser concentration. From the graph take the maximum burning rate.

The six measured values of burning rate within a run obtained from the mixture with the maximum burning rate must not differ from the arithmetic mean value by more than 10 %; otherwise the methods of grinding and mixing must be improved.

Compare the maximum burning rate obtained with the maximum burning rate of the reference mixture (see 1.3).

If tests are conducted in an inert atmosphere, the maximum reaction rate is compared with that from the reference mixture in an inert atmosphere.

3.   REPORT

3.1.   TEST REPORT

The test report shall, if possible, include the following information:

3.2.   INTERPRETATION OF THE RESULT

A substance is to be considered as an oxidising substance when:

In order to avoid a false positive, the results obtained when testing the substance mixed with an inert material and/or when testing under an inert atmosphere should also be considered when interpreting the results.

4.   REFERENCES

NF T 20-035 (September 85) Chemical products for industrial use. Determination of the oxidising properties of solids.

Appendix

Figure

Mould and accessories for the preparations of the pile

(All dimensions in millimetres)

A.18.   NUMBER-AVERAGE MOLECULAR WEIGHT AND MOLECULAR WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF POLYMERS

1.   METHOD

This Gel Permeation Chromatographic method is a replicate of the OECD TG 118 (1996). The fundamental principles and further technical information are given in reference (1).

1.1.   INTRODUCTION

Since the properties of polymers are so varied, it is impossible to describe one single method setting out precisely the conditions for separation and evaluation which cover all eventualities and specificities occurring in the separation of polymers. In particular, complex polymer systems are often not amenable to gel permeation chromatography (GPC). When GPC is not practicable, the molecular weight may be determined by means of other methods (see Appendix). In such cases, full details and justification should be given for the method used.

The method described is based on DIN Standard 55672 (1). Detailed information about how to carry out the experiments and how to evaluate the data can be found in this DIN Standard. In case modifications of the experimental conditions are necessary, these changes must be justified. Other standards may be used, if fully referenced. The method described uses polystyrene samples of known polydispersity for calibration and it may have to be modified to be suitable for certain polymers, e.g. water soluble and long-chain branched polymers.

1.2.   DEFINITIONS AND UNITS

The number-average molecular weight Mn and the weight average molecular weight Mw are determined using the following equations:

where,

Hi is the level of the detector signal from the baseline for the retention volume Vi,

Mi is the molecular weight of the polymer fraction at the retention volume Vi, and

n is the number of data points.

The breadth of the molecular weight distribution, which is a measure of the dispersity of the system, is given by the ratio Mw/Mn.

1.3.   REFERENCE SUBSTANCES

Since GPC is a relative method, calibration must be undertaken. Narrowly distributed, linearly constructed polystyrene standards with known average molecular weights Mn and Mw and a known molecular weight distribution are normally used for this. The calibration curve can only be used in the determination of the molecular weight of the unknown sample if the conditions for the separation of the sample and the standards have been selected in an identical manner.

A determined relationship between the molecular weight and elution volume is only valid under the specific conditions of the particular experiment. The conditions include, above all, the temperature, the solvent (or solvent mixture), the chromatography conditions and the separation column or system of columns.

The molecular weights of the sample determined in this way are relative values and are described as ‘polystyrene equivalent molecular weights’. This means that dependent on the structural and chemical differences between the sample and the standards, the molecular weights can deviate from the absolute values to a greater or a lesser degree. If other standards are used, e.g. polyethylene glycol, polyethylene oxide, polymethyl methacrylate, polyacrylic acid, the reason should be stated.

1.4.   PRINCIPLE OF THE TEST METHOD

Both the molecular weight distribution of the sample and the average molecular weights (Mn, Mw) can be determined using GPC. GPC is a special type of liquid chromatography in which the sample is separated according to the hydrodynamic volumes of the individual constituents (2).

Separation is effected as the sample passes through a column which is filled with a porous material, typically an organic gel. Small molecules can penetrate the pores whereas large molecules are excluded. The path of the large molecules is thereby shorter and these are eluted first. The medium-sized molecules penetrate some of the pores and are eluted later. The smallest molecules, with a mean hydrodynamic radius smaller than the pores of the gel, can penetrate all of the pores. These are eluted last.

In an ideal situation, the separation is governed entirely by the size of the molecular species, but in practice it is difficult to avoid at least some absorption effects interfering. Uneven column packing and dead volumes can worsen the situation (2).

Detection is effected by, e.g. refractive index or UV-absorption, and yields a simple distribution curve. However, to attribute actual molecular weight values to the curve, it is necessary to calibrate the column by passing down polymers of known molecular weight and, ideally, of broadly similar structure e.g. various polystyrene standards. Typically a Gaussian curve results, sometimes distorted by a small tail to the low molecular weight side, the vertical axis indicating the quantity, by weight, of the various molecular weight species eluted, and the horizontal axis the log molecular weight.

1.5.   QUALITY CRITERIA

The repeatability (Relative Standard Deviation: RSD) of the elution volume should be better than 0,3 %. The required repeatability of the analysis has to be ensured by correction via an internal standard if a chromatogram is evaluated time-dependently and does not correspond to the above mentioned criterion (1). The polydispersities are dependent on the molecular weights of the standards. In the case of polystyrene standards typical values are:

(Mp is the molecular weight of the standard at the peak maximum)

1.6.   DESCRIPTION OF THE TEST METHOD

1.6.1.   Preparation of the standard polystyrene solutions

The polystyrene standards are dissolved by careful mixing in the chosen eluent. The recommendations of the manufacturer must be taken into account in the preparation of the solutions.

The concentrations of the standards chosen are dependent on various factors, e.g. injection volume, viscosity of the solution and sensitivity of the analytical detector. The maximum injection volume must be adapted to the length of the column, in order to avoid overloading. Typical injection volumes for analytical separations using GPC with a column of 30 cm × 7,8 mm are normally between 40 and 100 μl. Higher volumes are possible, but they should not exceed 250 μl. The optimal ratio between the injection volume and the concentration must be determined prior to the actual calibration of the column.

1.6.2.   Preparation of the sample solution

In principle, the same requirements apply to the preparation of the sample solutions. The sample is dissolved in a suitable solvent, e.g. tetrahydrofuran (THF), by shaking carefully. Under no circumstances should it be dissolved using an ultrasonic bath. When necessary, the sample solution is purified via a membrane filter with a pore size of between 0,2 and 2 μm.

The presence of undissolved particles must be recorded in the final report as these may be due to high molecular weight species. An appropriate method should be used to determine the percentage by weight of the undissolved particles. The solutions should be used within 24 hours.

1.6.3.   Apparatus

It must be ensured that the GPC system is inert with regard to the utilised solvents (e.g. by the use of steel capillaries for THF solvent).

1.6.4.   Injection and solvent delivery system

A defined volume of the sample solution is loaded onto the column either using an auto-sampler or manually in a sharply defined zone. Withdrawing or depressing the plunger of the syringe too quickly, if done manually, can cause changes in the observed molecular weight distribution. The solvent-delivery system should, as far as possible, be pulsation-free ideally incorporating a pulse dampener. The flow rate is of the order of 1 ml/min.

1.6.5.   Column

Depending on the sample, the polymer is characterised using either a simple column or several columns connected in sequence. A number of porous column materials with defined properties (e.g. pore size, exclusion limits) are commercially available. Selection of the separation gel or the length of the column is dependent on both the properties of the sample (hydrodynamic volumes, molecular weight distribution) and the specific conditions for separation such as solvent, temperature and flow rate (1)(2)(3).

1.6.6.   Theoretical plates

The column or the combination of columns used for separation must be characterised by the number of theoretical plates. This involves, in the case of THF as elution solvent, loading a solution of ethyl benzene or other suitable non-polar solute onto a column of known length. The number of theoretical plates is given by the following equation:

where,

N

=

the number of theoretical plates

Ve

=

the elution volume at the peak maximum

W

=

the baseline peak width

W1/2

=

the peak width at half height

1.6.7.   Separation efficiency

In addition to the number of theoretical plates, which is a quantity determining the bandwidth, a part is also played by the separation efficiency, this being determined by the steepness of the calibration curve. The separation efficiency of a column is obtained from the following relationship:

where,

Ve, Mx

=

the elution volume for polystyrene with the molecular weight Mx

Ve,(10.Mx)

=

the elution volume for polystyrene with a ten times greater molecular weight

The resolution of the system is commonly defined as follows:

where,

Ve1, Ve2

=

the elution volumes of the two polystyrene standards at the peak maximum

W1, W2

=

the peak widths at the base-line

M1, M2

=

the molecular weights at the peak maximum (should differ by a factor of 10)

The R-value for the column system should be greater than 1.7 (4).

1.6.8.   Solvents

All solvents must be of high purity (for THF purity of 99,5 % is used). The solvent reservoir (if necessary in an inert gas atmosphere) must be sufficiently large for the calibration of the column and several sample analyses. The solvent must be degassed before it is transported to the column via the pump.

1.6.9.   Temperature control

The temperature of the critical internal components (injection loop, columns, detector and tubing) should be constant and consistent with the choice of solvent.

1.6.10.   Detector

The purpose of the detector is to record quantitatively the concentration of sample eluted from the column. In order to avoid unnecessary broadening of peaks the cuvette volume of the detector cell must be kept as small as possible. It should not be larger than 10 μl except for light scattering and viscosity detectors. Differential refractometry is usually used for detection. However, if required by the specific properties of the sample or the elution solvent, other types of detectors can be used, e.g. UV/VIS, IR, viscosity detectors, etc.

2.   DATA AND REPORTING

2.1.   DATA

The DIN Standard (1) should be referred to for the detailed evaluation criteria as well as for the requirements relating to the collecting and processing of data.

For each sample, two independent experiments must be carried out. They have to be analysed individually.

Mn, Mw, Mw/Mn and Mp must be provided for every measurement. It is necessary to indicate explicitly that the measured values are relative values equivalent to the molecular weights of the standard used.

After determination of the retention volumes or the retention times (possibly corrected using an internal standard), log Mp values (Mp being the peak maxima of the calibration standard) are plotted against one of those quantities. At least two calibration points are necessary per molecular weight decade, and at least five measurement points are required for the total curve, which should cover the estimated molecular weight of the sample. The low molecular weight end-point of the calibration curve is defined by n-hexyl benzene or another suitable non-polar solute. The number average and the weight-average molecular weights are generally determined by means of electronic data processing, based on the formulas of section 1.2. In case manual digitisation is used, ASTM D 3536-91 can be consulted (3).

The distribution curve must be provided in the form of a table or as figure (differential frequency or sum percentages against log M). In the graphic representation, one molecular weight decade should be normally about 4 cm in width and the peak maximum should be about 8 cm in height. In the case of integral distribution curves the difference in the ordinate between 0 and 100 % should be about 10 cm.

2.2.   TEST REPORT

The test report must include the following information:

2.2.1.   Test substance:

2.2.2.   Instrumentation:

2.2.3.   Calibration of the system:

2.2.4.   Evaluation:

3.   REFERENCES

Appendix

Examples of other methods for determination of number average molecular weight (Mn) for polymers

Gel permeation chromatography (GPC) is the preferred method for determination of Mn, especially when a set of standards are available, whose structure are comparable with the polymer structure. However, where there are practical difficulties in using GPC or there is already an expectation that the substance will fail a regulatory Mn criterion (and which needs confirming), alternative methods are available, such as:

1.   Use of colligative properties

involves measurement of boiling point elevation (ebullioscopy) or freezing point depression (cryoscopy) of a solvent, when the polymer is added. The method relies on the fact that the effect of the dissolved polymer on the boiling/freezing point of the liquid is dependent on the molecular weight of the polymer (1) (2).

Applicability, Mn < 20 000 .

involves the measurement of the vapour pressure of a chosen reference liquid before and after the addition of known quantities of polymer (1) (2).

Applicability, Mn < 20 000 (theoretically; in practice however of limited value).

relies on the principle of osmosis, i.e. the natural tendency of solvent molecules to pass through a semi-permeable membrane from a dilute to a concentrated solution to achieve equilibrium. In the test, the dilute solution is at zero concentration, whereas the concentrated solution contains the polymer. The effect of drawing solvent through the membrane causes a pressure differential that is dependent on the concentration and the molecular weight of the polymer (1) (3) (4).

Applicability, Mn between 20 000 - 200 000 .

involves comparison of the rate of evaporation of a pure solvent aerosol to at least three aerosols containing the polymer at different concentrations (1)(2)(4).

Applicability, Mn < 20 000 .

2.   End-group analysis

To use this method, knowledge of both the overall structure of the polymer and the nature of the chain terminating end groups is needed (which must be distinguishable from the main skeleton by, e.g. NMR or titration/derivatisation). The determination of the molecular concentration of the end groups present on the polymer can lead to a value for the molecular weight (7) (8) (9).

Applicability, Mn up to 50 000 (with decreasing reliability).

3.   References

A.19.   LOW MOLECULAR WEIGHT CONTENT OF POLYMERS

1.   METHOD

This Gel Permeation Chromatographic method is a replicate of the OECD TG 119 (1996). The fundamental principles and further technical information are given in the references.

1.1.   INTRODUCTION

Since the properties of polymers are so varied, it is impossible to describe one single method setting out precisely the conditions for separation and evaluation which cover all eventualities and specificities occurring in the separation of polymers. In particular, complex polymer systems are often not amenable to gel permeation chromatography (GPC). When GPC is not practicable, the molecular weight may be determined by means of other methods (see Appendix). In such cases, full details and justification should be given for the method used.

The method described is based on DIN Standard 55672 (1). Detailed information about how to carry out the experiments and how to evaluate the data can be found in this DIN Standard. In case modifications of the experimental conditions are necessary, these changes must be justified. Other standards may be used, if fully referenced. The method described uses polystyrene samples of known polydispersity for calibration and it may have to be modified to be suitable for certain polymers, e.g. water soluble and long-chain branched polymers.

1.2.   DEFINITIONS AND UNITS

Low molecular weight is arbitrarily defined as a molecular weight below 1 000 dalton.

The number-average molecular weight Mn and the weight average molecular weight Mw are determined using the following equations:

where,

Hi

=

the level of the detector signal from the baseline for the retention volume Vi,

Mi

=

the molecular weight of the polymer fraction at the retention volume Vi, and n is the number of data points

The breadth of the molecular weight distribution, which is a measure of the dispersity of the system, is given by the ratio Mw/Mn.

1.3.   REFERENCE SUBSTANCES

Since GPC is a relative method, calibration must be undertaken. Narrowly distributed, linearly constructed polystyrene standards with known average molecular weights Mn and Mw and a known molecular weight distribution are normally used for this. The calibration curve can only be used in the determination of the molecular weight of the unknown sample if the conditions for the separation of the sample and the standards have been selected in an identical manner.

A determined relationship between the molecular weight and elution volume is only valid under the specific conditions of the particular experiment. The conditions include, above all, the temperature, the solvent (or solvent mixture), the chromatography conditions and the separation column or system of columns.

The molecular weights of the sample determined in this way are relative values and are described as ‘polystyrene equivalent molecular weights’. This means that dependent on the structural and chemical differences between the sample and the standards, the molecular weights can deviate from the absolute values to a greater or a lesser degree. If other standards are used, e.g. polyethylene glycol, polyethylene oxide, polymethyl methacrylate, polyacrylic acid, the reason should be stated.

1.4.   PRINCIPLE OF THE TEST METHOD

Both the molecular weight distribution of the sample and the average molecular weights (Mn, Mw) can be determined using GPC. GPC is a special type of liquid chromatography in which the sample is separated according to the hydrodynamic volumes of the individual constituents (2).

Separation is effected as the sample passes through a column which is filled with a porous material, typically an organic gel. Small molecules can penetrate the pores whereas large molecules are excluded. The path of the large molecules is thereby shorter and these are eluted first. The medium-sized molecules penetrate some of the pores and are eluted later. The smallest molecules, with a mean hydrodynamic radius smaller than the pores of the gel, can penetrate all of the pores. These are eluted last.

In an ideal situation, the separation is governed entirely by the size of the molecular species, but in practice it is difficult to avoid at least some absorption effects interfering. Uneven column packing and dead volumes can worsen the situation (2).

Detection is effected by e.g. refractive index or UV-absorption and yields a simple distribution curve. However, to attribute actual molecular weight values to the curve, it is necessary to calibrate the column by passing down polymers of known molecular weight and, ideally, of broadly similar structure, e.g. various polystyrene standards. Typically a Gaussian curve results, sometimes distorted by a small tail to the low molecular weight side, the vertical axis indicating the quantity, by weight, of the various molecular weight species eluted, and the horizontal axis the log molecular weight.

The low molecular weight content is derived from this curve. The calculation can only be accurate if the low molecular weight species respond equivalently on a per mass basis to the polymer as a whole.

1.5.   QUALITY CRITERIA

The repeatability (Relative Standard Deviation: RSD) of the elution volume should be better than 0,3 %. The required repeatability of the analysis has to be ensured by correction via an internal standard if a chromatogram is evaluated time-dependently and does not correspond to the above mentioned criterion (1). The polydispersities are dependent on the molecular weights of the standards. In the case of polystyrene standards typical values are:

(Mp is the molecular weight of the standard at the peak maximum)

1.6.   DESCRIPTION OF THE TEST METHOD

1.6.1.   Preparation of the standard polystyrene solutions

The polystyrene standards are dissolved by careful mixing in the chosen eluent. The recommendations of the manufacturer must be taken into account in the preparation of the solutions.

The concentrations of the standards chosen are dependent on various factors, e.g. injection volume, viscosity of the solution and sensitivity of the analytical detector. The maximum injection volume must be adapted to the length of the column, in order to avoid overloading. Typical injection volumes for analytical separations using GPC with a column of 30 cm × 7,8 mm are normally between 40 and 100 μl. Higher volumes are possible, but they should not exceed 250 μl. The optimal ratio between the injection volume and the concentration must be determined prior to the actual calibration of the column.

1.6.2.   Preparation of the sample solution

In principle, the same requirements apply to the preparation of the sample solutions. The sample is dissolved in a suitable solvent, e.g. tetrahydrofuran (THF), by shaking carefully. Under no circumstances should it be dissolved using an ultrasonic bath. When necessary, the sample solution is purified via a membrane filter with a pore size of between 0,2 and 2 μm.

The presence of undissolved particles must be recorded in the final report as these may be due to high molecular weight species. An appropriate method should be used to determine the percentage by weight of the undissolved particles. The solutions should be used within 24 hours.

1.6.3.   Correction for content of impurities and additives

Correction of the content of species of M < 1 000 for the contribution from non-polymer specific components present (e.g. impurities and/or additives) is usually necessary, unless the measured content is already < 1 %. This is achieved by direct analysis of the polymer solution or the GPC eluate.

In cases where the eluate, after passage through the column, is too dilute for a further analysis it must be concentrated. It may be necessary to evaporate the eluate to dryness and dissolve it again. Concentration of the eluate must be effected under conditions which ensure that no changes occur in the eluate. The treatment of the eluate after the GPC step is dependent on the analytical method used for the quantitative determination.

1.6.4.   Apparatus

GPC apparatus comprises the following components:

It must be ensured that the GPC system is inert with regard to the utilised solvents (e.g. by the use of steel capillaries for THF solvent).

1.6.5.   Injection and solvent delivery system

A defined volume of the sample solution is loaded onto the column either using an auto-sampler or manually in a sharply defined zone. Withdrawing or depressing the plunger of the syringe too quickly, if done manually, can cause changes in the observed molecular weight distribution. The solvent-delivery system should, as far as possible, be pulsation-free ideally incorporating a pulse dampener. The flow rate is of the order of 1 ml/min.

1.6.6.   Column

Depending on the sample, the polymer is characterised using either a simple column or several columns connected in sequence. A number of porous column materials with defined properties (e.g. pore size, exclusion limits) are commercially available. Selection of the separation gel or the length of the column is dependent on both the properties of the sample (hydrodynamic volumes, molecular weight distribution) and the specific conditions for separation such as solvent, temperature and flow rate (1) (2) (3).

1.6.7.   Theoretical plates

The column or the combination of columns used for separation must be characterised by the number of theoretical plates. This involves, in the case of THF as elution solvent, loading a solution of ethyl benzene or other suitable non-polar solute onto a column of known length. The number of theoretical plates is given by the following equation:

where,

N

=

the number of theoretical plates

Ve

=

the elution volume at the peak maximum

W

=

the baseline peak width

W1/2

=

the peak width at half height

1.6.8.   Separation efficiency

In addition to the number of theoretical plates, which is a quantity determining the bandwidth, a part is also played by the separation efficiency, this being determined by the steepness of the calibration curve. The separation efficiency of a column is obtained from the following relationship:

where,

Ve, Mx

=

the elution volume for polystyrene with the molecular weight Mx

Ve,(10.Mx)

=

the elution volume for polystyrene with a ten times greater molecular weight

The resolution of the system is commonly defined as follows:

where,

Ve1, Ve2

=

the elution volumes of the two polystyrene standards at the peak maximum

W1, W2

=

the peak widths at the base-1ine

M1, M2

=

the molecular weights at the peak maximum (should differ by a factor of 10).

The R-value for the column system should be greater than 1,7 (4).

1.6.9.   Solvents

All solvents must be of high purity (for THF purity of 99,5 % is used). The solvent reservoir (if necessary in an inert gas atmosphere) must be sufficiently large for the calibration of the column and several sample analyses. The solvent must be degassed before it is transported to the column via the pump.

1.6.10.   Temperature control

The temperature of the critical internal components (injection loop, columns, detector and tubing) should be constant and consistent with the choice of solvent.

1.6.11.   Detector

The purpose of the detector is to record quantitatively the concentration of sample eluted from the column. In order to avoid unnecessary broadening of peaks the cuvette volume of the detector cell must be kept as small as possible. It should not be larger than 10 μl except for light scattering and viscosity detectors. Differential refractometry is usually used for detection. However, if required by the specific properties of the sample or the elution solvent, other types of detectors can be used, e.g. UV/VIS, IR, viscosity detectors, etc.

2.   DATA AND REPORTING

2.1.   DATA

The DIN Standard (1) should be referred to for the detailed evaluation criteria as well as for the requirements relating to the collecting and processing of data.

For each sample, two independent experiments must be carried out. They have to be analysed individually. In all cases it is essential to determine also data from blanks, treated under the same conditions as the sample.

It is necessary to indicate explicitly that the measured values are relative values equivalent to the molecular weights of the standard used.

After determination of the retention volumes or the retention times (possibly corrected using an internal standard), log Mp values (Mp being the peak maxima of the calibration standard) are plotted against one of those quantities. At least two calibration points are necessary per molecular weight decade, and at least five measurement points are required for the total curve, which should cover the estimated molecular weight of the sample. The low molecular weight end-point of the calibration curve is defined by n-hexyl benzene or another suitable non-polar solute. The portion of the curve corresponding to molecular weights below 1 000 is determined and corrected as necessary for impurities and additives. The elution curves are generally evaluated by means of electronic data processing. In case manual digitisation is used, ASTM D 3536-91 can be consulted (3).

If any insoluble polymer is retained on the column, its molecular weight is likely to be higher than that of the soluble fraction, and if not considered would result in an overestimation of the low molecular weight content. Guidance for correcting the low molecular weight content for insoluble polymer is provided in the Appendix.

The distribution curve must be provided in the form of a table or as figure (differential frequency or sum percentages against log M). In the graphic representation, one molecular weight decade should be normally about 4 cm in width and the peak maximum should be about 8 cm in height. In the case of integral distribution curves the difference in the ordinate between 0 and 100 % should be about 10 cm.

2.2.   TEST REPORT

The test report must include the following information:

2.2.1.   Test substance:

2.2.2.   Instrumentation:

2.2.3.   Calibration of the system:

2.2.4.   Information on the low molecular weight polymer content:

2.2.5.   Evaluation:

3.   REFERENCES

Appendix

Guidance for correcting low molecular content for the presence of insoluble polymer

When insoluble polymer is present in a sample, it results in mass loss during the GPC analysis. The insoluble polymer is irreversibly retained on the column or sample filter while the soluble portion of the sample passes through the column. In the case where the refractive index increment (dn/dc) of the polymer can be estimated or measured, one can estimate the sample mass lost on the column. In that case, one makes a correction using an external calibration with standard materials of known concentration and dn/dc to calibrate the response of the refractometer. In the example hereafter a poly(methyl methacrylate) (pMMA) standard is used.

In the external calibration for analysis of acrylic polymers, a pMMA standard of known concentration in tetrahydrofuran, is analysed by GPC and the resulting data are used to find the refractometer constant according to the equation:

K = R/(C × V × dn/dc)

where:

K

=

the refractometer constant (in microvolt second/ml),

R

=

the response of the pMMA standard (in microvolt/second),

C

=

the concentration of the pMMA standard (in mg/ml),

V

=

the injection volume (in ml), and

dn/dc

=

the refractive index increment for pMMA in tetrahydrofuran (in ml/mg).

The following data are typical for a pMMA standard:

R

=

2 937 891

C

=

1,07 mg/ml

V

=

0,1 ml

dn/dc

=

9 × 10-5 ml/mg

The resulting K value, 3,05 × 1011 is then used to calculate the theoretical detector response if 100 % of the polymer injected had eluted through the detector.

A.20.   SOLUTION/EXTRACTION BEHAVIOUR OF POLYMERS IN WATER

1.   METHOD

The method described is a replicate of the revised version of OECD TG 120 (1997). Further technical information is given in reference (1).

1.1.   INTRODUCTION

For certain polymers, such as emulsion polymers, initial preparatory work may be necessary before the method set out hereafter can be used. The method is not applicable to liquid polymers and to polymers that react with water under the test conditions.

When the method is not practical or not possible, the solution/extraction behaviour may be investigated by means of other methods. In such cases, full details and justification should be given for the method used.

1.2.   REFERENCE SUBSTANCES

None.

1.3.   PRINCIPLE OF THE TEST METHOD

The solution/extraction behaviour of polymers in an aqueous medium is determined using the flask method (see A.6 Water Solubility, Flask method) with the modifications described below.

1.4.   QUALITY CRITERIA

None.

1.5.   DESCRIPTION OF THE TEST METHOD

1.5.1.   Equipment

The following equipment is required for the method:

1.5.2.   Sample preparation

A representative sample has first to be reduced to a particle size between 0,125 and 0,25 mm using appropriate sieves. Cooling may be required for the stability of the sample or for the grinding process. Materials of a rubbery nature can be crushed at liquid nitrogen temperature (1).

If the required particle size fraction is not attainable, action should be taken to reduce the particle size as much as possible, and the result reported. In the report, it is necessary to indicate the way in which the crushed sample was stored prior to the test

1.5.3.   Procedure

Three samples of 10 g of the test substance are weighed into each of three vessels fitted with glass stoppers and 1 000 ml of water is added to each vessel. If handling an amount of 10 g polymer proves impracticable, the next highest amount which can be handled should be used and the volume of water adjusted accordingly.

The vessels are tightly stoppered and then agitated at 20 oC. A shaking or stirring device capable of operating at constant temperature should be used. After a period of 24 hours, the content of each vessel is centrifuged or filtered and the concentration of polymer in the clear aqueous phase is determined by a suitable analytical method. If suitable analytical methods for the aqueous phase are not available, the total solubility/extractivity can be estimated from the dry weight of the filter residue or centrifuged precipitate.

It is usually necessary to differentiate quantitatively between the impurities and additives on the one hand and the low molecular weight species on the other hand. In the case of gravimetric determination, it is also important to perform a blank run using no test substance in order to account for residues arising from the experimental procedure.

The solution/extraction behaviour of polymers in water at 37 oC at pH 2 and pH 9 may be determined in the same way as described for the conduct of the experiment at 20 oC. The pH values can be achieved by the addition of either suitable buffers or appropriate acids or bases such as hydrochloric acid, acetic acid, analytical grade sodium or potassium hydroxide or NH3.

Depending on the method of analysis used, one or two tests should be performed. When sufficiently specific methods are available for direct analysis of the aqueous phase for the polymer component, one test as described above should suffice. However, when such methods are not available and determination of the solution/extraction behaviour of the polymer is limited to indirect analysis by determining only the total organic carbon content (TOC) of the aqueous extract, an additional test should be conducted. This additional test should also be done in triplicate, using ten times smaller polymer samples and the same amounts of water as those used in the first test.

1.5.4.   Analysis

1.5.4.1.   Test conducted with one sample size

Methods may be available for direct analysis of polymer components in the aqueous phase. Alternatively, indirect analysis of dissolved/extracted polymer components, by determining the total content of soluble parts and correcting for non polymer-specific components, could also be considered.

Analysis of the aqueous phase for the total polymeric species is possible:

either by a sufficiently sensitive method, e.g.:

or by vacuum evaporation to dryness of the aqueous extract and spectroscopic (IR, UV, etc.) or AAS/ICP analysis of the residue.

If analysis of the aqueous phase as such is not practicable, the aqueous extract should be extracted with a water-immiscible organic solvent e.g. a chlorinated hydrocarbon. The solvent is then evaporated and the residue analysed as above for the notified polymer content. Any components in this residue which are identified as being impurities or additives are to be subtracted for the purpose of determining the degree of solution/extraction of the polymer itself.

When relatively large quantities of such materials are present, it may be necessary to subject the residue to e.g. HPLC or GC analysis to differentiate the impurities from the monomer and monomer-derived species present so that the true content of the latter can be determined.

In some cases, simple evaporation of the organic solvent to dryness and weighing the dry residue may be sufficient.

1.5.4.2.   Test conducted with two different sample sizes

All aqueous extracts are analysed for TOC.

A gravimetric determination is performed on the undissolved/not extracted part of the sample. If, after centrifugation or filtering of the content of each vessel, polymer residues remain attached to the wall of the vessel, the vessel should be rinsed with the filtrate until the vessel is cleared from all visible residues. Following which, the filtrate is again centrifuged or filtered. The residues remaining on the filter or in the centrifuge tube are dried at 40 oC under vacuum and weighed. Drying is continued until a constant weight is reached.

2.   DATA

2.1.   TEST CONDUCTED WITH ONE SAMPLE SIZE

The individual results for each of the three flasks and the average values should be given and expressed in units of mass per volume of the solution (typically mg/l) or mass per mass of polymer sample (typically mg/g). Additionally, the weight loss of the sample (calculated as the weight of the solute divided by the weight of the initial sample) should also be given. The relative standard deviations (RSD) should be calculated. Individual figures should be given for the total substance (polymer + essential additives, etc.) and for the polymer only (i.e. after subtracting the contribution from such additives).

2.2.   TEST CONDUCTED WITH TWO DIFFERENT SAMPLE SIZES

The individual TOC values of the aqueous extracts of the two triplicate experiments and the average value for each experiment should be given expressed as units of mass per volume of solution (typically mgC/l), as well as in units of mass per weight of the initial sample (typically mgC/g).

If there is no difference between the results at the high and the low sample/water ratios, this may indicate that all extractable components were indeed extracted. In such a case, direct analysis would normally not be necessary.

The individual weights of the residues should be given and expressed in percentage of the initial weights of the samples. Averages should be calculated per experiment. The differences between 100 and the percentages found represent the percentages of soluble and extractable material in the original sample.

3.   REPORTING

3.1.   TEST REPORT

The test report must include the following information:

3.1.1.   Test substance:

3.1.2.   Experimental conditions:

3.1.3.   Results:

4.   REFERENCES

A.21.   OXIDISING PROPERTIES (LIQUIDS)

1.   METHOD

1.1.   INTRODUCTION

This test method is designed to measure the potential for a liquid substance to increase the burning rate or burning intensity of a combustible substance, or to form a mixture with a combustible substance which spontaneously ignites, when the two are thoroughly mixed. It is based on the UN test for oxidising liquids (1) and is equivalent to it. However, as this method A.21 is primarily designed to satisfy the requirements of Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006, comparison with only one reference substance is required. Testing and comparison to additional reference substances may be necessary when the results of the test are expected to be used for other purposes. ( 1 )

This test need not be performed when examination of the structural formula establishes beyond reasonable doubt that the substance is incapable of reacting exothermically with a combustible material.

It is useful to have preliminary information on any potential explosive properties of the substance before performing this test.

This test is not applicable to solids, gases, explosive or highly flammable substances, or organic peroxides.

This test may not need to be performed when results for the test substance in the UN test for oxidising liquids (1) are already available.

1.2.   DEFINITIONS AND UNITS

Mean pressure rise time is the mean of the measured times for a mixture under test to produce a pressure rise from 690 kPa to 2 070 kPa above atmospheric.

1.3.   REFERENCE SUBSTANCE

65 % (w/w) aqueous nitric acid (analytical grade) is required as a reference substance. ( 2 )

Optionally, if the experimenter foresees that the results of this test may eventually be used for other purposes ( 3 ), testing of additional reference substances may also be appropriate. ( 4 )

1.4.   PRINCIPLE OF THE TEST METHOD

The liquid to be tested is mixed in a 1 to 1 ratio, by mass, with fibrous cellulose and introduced into a pressure vessel. If during mixing or filling spontaneous ignition occurs, no further testing is necessary.

If spontaneous ignition does not occur the full test is carried out. The mixture is heated in a pressure vessel and the mean time taken for the pressure to rise from 690 kPa to 2 070 kPa above atmospheric is determined. This is compared with the mean pressure rise time for the 1:1 mixture of the reference substance(s) and cellulose.

1.5.   QUALITY CRITERIA

In a series of five trials on a single substance no results should differ by more than 30 % from the arithmetic mean. Results that differ by more than 30 % from the mean should be discarded, the mixing and filling procedure improved and the testing repeated.

1.6.   DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD

1.6.1.   Preparation

1.6.1.1.   Combustible substance

Dried, fibrous cellulose with a fibre length between 50 and 250 μm and a mean diameter of 25 μm ( 5 ), is used as the combustible material. It is dried to constant weight in a layer not more than 25 mm thick at 105 oC for four hours and kept in a desiccator, with desiccant, until cool and required for use. The water content of the dried cellulose should be less than 0,5 % by dry mass ( 6 ). If necessary, the drying time should be prolonged to achieve this. ( 7 ) The same batch of cellulose is to be used throughout the test.

1.6.1.2.   Apparatus

1.6.1.2.1.    Pressure vessel

A pressure vessel is required. The vessel consists of a cylindrical steel pressure vessel 89 mm in length and 60 mm in external diameter (see figure 1). Two flats are machined on opposite sides (reducing the cross-section of the vessel to 50 mm) to facilitate holding whilst fitting up the firing plug and vent plug. The vessel, which has a bore of 20 mm diameter is internally rebated at either end to a depth of 19 mm and threaded to accept 1'' British Standard Pipe (BSP) or metric equivalent. A pressure take-off, in the form of a side arm, is screwed into the curved face of the pressure vessel 35 mm from one end and at 90o to the machined flats. The socket for this is bored to a depth of 12 mm and threaded to accept the 1/2" BSP (or metric equivalent) thread on the end of the side-arm. If necessary, an inert seal is fitted to ensure a gas-tight seal. The side-arm extends 55 mm beyond the pressure vessel body and has a bore of 6 mm. The end of the side-arm is rebated and threaded to accept a diaphragm type pressure transducer. Any pressure-measuring device may be used provided that it is not affected by the hot gases or the decomposition products and is capable of responding to rates of pressure rise of 690-2 070 kPa in not more than 5 ms.

The end of the pressure vessel farthest from the side-arm is closed with a firing plug which is fitted with two electrodes, one insulated from, and the other earthed to, the plug body. The other end of the pressure vessel is closed by a bursting disk (bursting pressure approximately 2 200 kPa) held in place with a retaining plug which has a 20 mm bore. If necessary, an inert seal is used with the firing plug to ensure a gas-tight fit. A support stand (figure 2) holds the assembly in the correct attitude during use. This usually comprises a mild steel base plate measuring 235 mm × 184 mm × 6 mm and a 185 mm length of square hollow section (S.H.S.) 70 mm × 70 mm × 4 mm.

A section is cut from each of two opposite sides at one end of the length of S.H.S. so that a structure having two flat sided legs surmounted by 86 mm length of intact box section results. The ends of these flat sides are cut to an angle of 60o to the horizontal and welded to the base plate. A slot measuring 22 mm wide × 46 mm deep is machined in one side of the upper end of the base section such that when the pressure vessel assembly is lowered, firing plug end first, into the box section support, the side-arm is accommodated in the slot. A piece of steel 30 mm wide and 6 mm thick is welded to the lower internal face of the box section to act as a spacer. Two 7 mm thumb screws, tapped into the opposite face, serve to hold the pressure vessel firmly in place. Two 12 mm wide strips of 6 mm thick steel, welded to the side pieces abutting the base of the box section, support the pressure vessel from beneath.

1.6.1.2.2.    Ignition system

The ignition system consists of a 25 cm long Ni/Cr wire with a diameter 0,6 mm and a resistance of 3,85 ohm/m. The wire is wound, using a 5 mm diameter rod, in the shape of a coil and is attached to the firing plug electrodes. The coil should have one of the configurations shown in figure 3. The distance between the bottom of the vessel and the underside of the ignition coil should be 20 mm. If the electrodes are not adjustable, the ends of the ignition wire between the coil and the bottom of the vessel should be insulated by a ceramic sheath. The wire is heated by a constant current power supply able to deliver at least 10 A.

1.6.2.   Performance of the test ( 8 )

The apparatus, assembled complete with pressure transducer and heating system but without the bursting disk in position, is supported firing plug end down. 2,5 g of the liquid to be tested is mixed with 2,5 g of dried cellulose in a glass beaker using a glass stirring rod ( 9 ). For safety, the mixing should be performed with a safety shield between the operator and mixture. If the mixture ignites during mixing or filling, no further testing is necessary. The mixture is added, in small portions with tapping, to the pressure vessel making sure that the mixture is packed around the ignition coil and is in good contact with it. It is important that the coil is not distorted during the packing process as this may lead to erroneous results ( 10 ). The bursting disk is placed in position and the retaining plug is screwed in tightly. The charged vessel is transferred to the firing support stand, bursting disk uppermost, which should be located in a suitable, armoured fume cupboard or firing cell. The power supply is connected to the external terminals of the firing plug and 10 A applied. The time between the start of mixing and switching on the power should not exceed 10 minutes.

The signal produced by the pressure transducer is recorded on a suitable system which allows both evaluation and the generation of a permanent record of the time pressure profile obtained (e.g. a transient recorder coupled to a chart recorder). The mixture is heated until the bursting disk ruptures or until at least 60 s have elapsed. If the bursting disk does not rupture, the mixture should be allowed to cool before carefully dismantling the apparatus, taking precautions to allow for any pressurisation which may occur. Five trials are performed with the test substance and the reference substance(s). The time taken for the pressure to rise from 690 kPa to 2 070 kPa above atmospheric is noted. The mean pressure rise time is calculated.

In some cases, substances may generate a pressure rise (too high or too low), caused by chemical reactions not characterising the oxidising properties of the substance. In these cases, it may be necessary to repeat the test with an inert substance, e.g. diatomite (kieselguhr), in place of the cellulose in order to clarify the nature of the reaction.

2.   DATA

Pressure rise times for both the test substance and the reference substance(s). Pressure rise times for the tests with an inert substance, if performed.

2.1.   TREATMENT OF RESULTS

The mean pressure rise times for both the test substance and the reference substances(s) are calculated.

The mean pressure rise time for the tests with an inert substance (if performed) is calculated.

Some examples of results are shown in Table 1.

3.   REPORT

3.1.   TEST REPORT

The test report should include the following information:

3.2.   INTERPRETATION OF THE RESULTS ( 11 )

The test results are assessed on the basis of:

A liquid substance is to be considered as an oxidiser when:

In order to avoid a false positive result, if necessary, the results obtained when testing the substance with an inert material should also be considered when interpreting the results.

4.   REFERENCES

Figure 1

Pressure vessel

Figure 2

Support stand

Figure 3

Ignition system

Note: either of these configurations may be used.

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A.22.   LENGTH WEIGHTED GEOMETRIC MEAN DIAMETER OF FIBRES

1.   METHOD

1.1.   INTRODUCTION

This method describes a procedure to measure the Length Weighted Geometric Mean Diameter (LWGMD) of bulk Man Made Mineral Fibres (MMMF). As the LWGMD of the population will have a 95 % probability of being between the 95 % confidence levels (LWGMD ± two standard errors) of the sample, the value reported (the test value) will be the lower 95 % confidence limit of the sample (i.e. LWGMD — 2 standard errors). The method is based on an update (June 1994) of a draft HSE industry procedure agreed at a meeting between ECFIA and HSE at Chester on 26/9/93 and developed for and from a second inter-laboratory trial (1, 2). This measurement method can be used to characterise the fibre diameter of bulk substances or products containing MMMFs including refractory ceramic fibres (RCF), man-made vitreous fibres (MMVF), crystalline and polycrystalline fibres.

Length weighting is a means of compensating for the effect on the diameter distribution caused by the breakage of long fibres when sampling or handling the material. Geometric statistics (geometric mean) are used to measure the size distribution of MMMF diameters because these diameters usually have size distributions that approximate to log normal.

Measuring length as well as diameter is both tedious and time consuming but, if only those fibres that touch an infinitely thin line on a SEM field of view are measured, then the probability of selecting a given fibre is proportional to its length. As this takes care of the length in the length weighting calculations, the only measurement required is the diameter and the LWGMD-2SE can be calculated as described.

1.2.   DEFINITIONS

Particle: An object with a length to width ratio of less than 3:1.

Fibre: An object with a length to with ratio (aspect ratio) of at least 3:1.

1.3.   SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

The method is designed to look at diameter distributions which have median diameters from 0,5 μm to 6 μm. Larger diameters can be measured by using lower SEM magnifications but the method will be increasingly limited for finer fibre distributions and a TEM (transmission electron microscope) measurement is recommended if the median diameter is below 0,5 μm.

1.4.   PRINCIPLE OF THE TEST METHOD

A number of representative core samples are taken from the fibre blanket or from loose bulk fibre. The bulk fibres are reduced in length using a crushing procedure and a representative sub-sample dispersed in water. Aliquots are extracted and filtered through a 0,2 μm pore size, polycarbonate filter and prepared for examination using scanning electron microscope (SEM) techniques. The fibre diameters are measured at a screen magnification of × 10 000 or greater ( 12 ) using a line intercept method to give an unbiased estimate of the median diameter. The lower 95 % confidence interval (based on a one sided test) is calculated to give an estimate of the lowest value of the geometric mean fibre diameter of the material.

1.5.   DESCRIPTION OF THE TEST METHOD

1.5.1.   Safety/precautions

Personal exposure to airborne fibres should be minimised and a fume cupboard or glove box should be used for handling the dry fibres. Periodic personal exposure monitoring should be carried out to determine the effectiveness of the control methods. When handling MMMF’s disposable gloves should be worn to reduce skin irritation and to prevent cross-contamination.

1.5.2.   Apparatus/equipment

1.5.3.   Test Procedure

1.5.3.1.   Sampling

For blankets and bats a 25 mm core sampler or cork borer is used to take samples of the cross-section. These should be equally spaced across the width of a small length of the blanket or taken from random areas if long lengths of the blanket are available. The same equipment can be used to extract random samples from loose fibre. Six samples should be taken when possible, to reflect spatial variations in the bulk material.

The six core samples should be crushed in a 50 mm diameter dye at 10 MPa. The material is mixed with spatula and re-pressed at 10 MPa. The material is then removed from the dye and stored in a sealed glass bottle.

1.5.3.2.   Sample Preparation

If necessary, organic binder can be removed by placing the fibre inside a furnace at 450 °C for about one hour.

Cone and quarter to subdivide the sample (this should be done inside a dust cupboard).

Using a spatula, add a small amount (< 0,5 g) of sample to 100 ml of freshly distilled water that has been filtered through a 0,2 μm membrane filter (alternative sources of ultra pure water may be used if they are shown to be satisfactory). Disperse thoroughly by the use of an ultrasonic probe operated at 100 W power and tuned so that cavitation occurs. (If a probe is not available use the following method: repeatedly shake and invert for 30 seconds; ultrasonic in a bench top ultrasonic bath for five minutes; then repeatedly shake and invert for a further 30 seconds.)

Immediately after dispersion of the fibre, remove a number of aliquots (e.g. three aliquots of 3, 6 and 10 ml) using a wide-mouthed pipette (2-5 ml capacity).

Vacuum filter each aliquot through a 0,2 μm polycarbonate filter supported by a 5 μm pore MEC backing filter, using a 25 mm glass filter funnel with a cylindrical reservoir. Approximately 5 ml of filtered distilled water should be placed into the funnel and the aliquot slowly pipetted into the water holding the pipette tip below the meniscus. The pipette and the reservoir must be flushed thoroughly after pipetting, as thin fibres have a tendency to be located more on the surface.

Carefully remove the filter and separate it from the backing filter before placing it in a container to dry.

Cut a quarter or half filter section of the filtered deposit with a type 24 scalpel blade using a rocking action. Carefully attach the cut section to a SEM stub using a sticky carbon tab or carbon glue. Silver dag should be applied in at least three positions to improve the electrical contact at the edges of the filter and the stub. When the glue/silver dag is dry, sputter coat approximately 50 nm of gold or gold/palladium onto the surface of the deposit.

1.5.3.3.   SEM calibration and operation

1.5.3.3.1.   Calibration

The SEM calibration should be checked at least once a week (ideally once a day) using a certified calibration grid. The calibration should be checked against a certified standard and if the measured value (SEM) is not within ± 2 % of the certified value, then the SEM calibration must be adjusted and re-checked.

The SEM should be capable of resolving at least a minimum visible diameter of 0,2 μm, using a real sample matrix, at a magnification of × 2 000 .

1.5.3.3.2.   Operation

The SEM should be operated at 10 000 magnification ( 13 ) using conditions that give good resolution with an acceptable image at slow scan rates of, for example, 5 seconds per frame. Although the operational requirements of different SEMs may vary, generally to obtain the best visibility and resolution, with relatively low atomic weight materials, accelerating voltages of 5-10 keV should be used with a small spot size setting and short working distance. As a linear traverse is being conducted, then a 0° tilt should be used to minimise re-focussing or, if the SEM has a eucentric stage, the eucentric working distance should be used. Lower magnification may be used if the material does not contain small (diameter) fibres and the fibre diameters are large (> 5 μm).

1.5.3.4.   Sizing

1.5.3.4.1.   Low magnification examination to assess the sample

Initially the sample should be examined at low magnification to look for evidence of clumping of large fibres and to assess the fibre density. In the event of excessive clumping it is recommended that a new sample is prepared.

For statistical accuracy it is necessary to measure a minimum number of fibres and high fibre density may seem desirable as examining empty fields is time consuming and does not contribute to the analysis. However, if the filter is overloaded, it becomes difficult to measure all the measurable fibres and, because small fibres may be obscured by larger ones, they may be missed.

Bias towards over estimating the LWGMD may result from fibre densities in excess of 150 fibres per millimetre of linear traverse. On the other hand, low fibre concentrations will increase the time of analysis and it is often cost effective to prepare a sample with a fibre density closer to the optimum than to persist with counts on low concentration filters. The optimum fibre density should give an average of about one or two countable fibre per fields of view at 5 000 magnification. Nevertheless the optimum density will depend on the size (diameter) of the fibres, so it is necessary that the operator uses some expert judgement in order to decide whether the fibre density is close to optimal or not.

1.5.3.4.2.   Length weighting of the fibre diameters

Only those fibres that touch (or cross) an (infinitely) thin line drawn on the screen of the SEM are counted. For this reason a horizontal (or vertical) line is drawn across the centre of the screen.

Alternatively a single point is placed at the centre of the screen and a continuous scan in one direction across the filter is initiated. Each fibre of aspect ratio grater than 3:1 touching or crossing this point has its diameter measured and recorded.

1.5.3.4.3.   Fibre sizing

It is recommended that a minimum of 300 fibres are measured. Each fibre is measured only once at the point of intersection with the line or point drawn on the image (or close to the point of intersection if the fibre edges are obscured). If fibres with non-uniform cross sections are encountered, a measurement representing the average diameter of the fibre should be used. Care should be taken in defining the edge and measuring the shortest distance between the fibre edges. Sizing may be done on line, or off-line on stored images or photographs. Semi-automated image measurement systems that download data directly into a spreadsheet are recommended, as they save time, eliminate transcription errors and calculations can be automated.

The ends of long fibres should be checked at low magnification to ensure that they do not curl back into the measurement field of view and are only measured once.

2.   DATA

2.1.   TREATMENT OF RESULTS

Fibre diameters do not usually have a normal distribution. However, by performing a log transformation it is possible to obtain a distribution that approximates to normal.

Calculate the arithmetic mean (mean lnD) and the standard deviation (SDlnD) of the log to base e values (lnD) of the n fibre diameters (D).

The standard deviation is divided by the square root of the number of measurements (n) to obtain the standard error (SElnD).

Subtract two times the standard error from the mean and calculate the exponential of this value (mean minus two standard errors) to give the geometric mean minus two geometric standard errors.

3.   REPORTING

TEST REPORT

The test report should include at least the following information:

4.   REFERENCES

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A.23.   PARTITION COEFFICIENT (1-OCTANOL/WATER): SLOW-STIRRING METHOD

INTRODUCTION

INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS

Significance and use

Scope

DEFINITION AND UNITS

As a ratio of concentrations it is dimensionless. Most frequently it is given as the logarithm to the base 10 (log POW). POW is temperature dependent and reported data should include the temperature of the measurement.

PRINCIPLE OF THE METHOD

APPLICABILITY OF THE TEST

INFORMATION ON THE TEST SUBSTANCE

DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD

Equipment and apparatus

Preparation of the test solutions

Extraction and analysis of samples

Performance of the Test

Optimal 1-octanol/water volume ratios

Test conditions

Determination of the equilibration time

Starting the experiment

Sampling and Sample Treatment

DATA AND REPORTING

Treatment of the results

Demonstration of attainment of equilibrium

Log POW-calculation

Average log POW

The calculation is performed as follows:

where:

log POW,i

=

the log POW value of the individual experimental unit i;

log POW,Av

=

the weighted average value of the individual log POW determinations;

wi

=

the statistical weight assigned to the log POW value of the experimental unit i.

The reciprocal of the variance of log POW,i is employed as wi (
)

The symbol n stands for the number of experimental units.

Test Report

LITERATURE:

Appendix 1

Spreadsheet for computation of minimum volumes of water required for detection of test substances of different log POW values in aqueous phase

Assumptions:

Estimation of Sw

Estimation of Soct

Computation of volumes

Key to Computations

Represents < 10 % of total volume of aqueous phase, 1 litre equilibration vessel.

Represents < 10 % of total volume of aqueous phase, 2 litre equilibration vessel.

Represents < 10 % of total volume of aqueous phase, 5 litre equilibration vessel.

Represents < 10 % of total volume of aqueous phase, 10 litre equilibration vessel.

Exceeds 10 % of even the 10 liter equilibration vessel.

Appendix 2

An example of glass-jacketed test vessel for the slow-stirring experiment for determination of POW

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A.24.   PARTITION COEFFICIENT (N-OCTANOL/WATER), HIGH PERFORMANCELIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY (HPLC) METHOD

INTRODUCTION

This test method is equivalent to OECD test guideline (TG) 117 (2004)

The partition coefficient being the quotient of two concentrations, is dimensionless and is usually given in the form of its logarithm to base ten.

INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS

PRINCIPLE OF THE METHOD

where tR is the retention time of the test substance, and t0 is the dead-time, i.e. the average time a solvent molecule needs to pass the column. Quantitative analytical methods are not required and only the determination of retention times is necessary.

where

a, b

=

linear regression coefficients.

The equation above can be obtained by linearly regressing the log of octanol/water partition coefficients of reference substances against the log of capacity factors of the reference substances.

The weighed average log Pow is valid only for substances or mixtures (e.g. tall oils) consisting of homologues (e.g. series of alkanes). Mixtures can be measured with meaningful results, provided that the analytical detector used has the same sensitivity towards all the substances in the mixture and that they can be adequately resolved.

INFORMATION ON THE TEST SUBSTANCE

QUALITY CRITERIA

REFERENCE SUBSTANCES

DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD

Preliminary estimate of the partition coefficient

Apparatus

Mobile phase

Solutes

Test conditions

Determination of dead time to

Regression Equation

DETERMINATION OF THE POW OF THE TEST SUBSTANCE

DATA AND REPORTING

Test report

LITERATURE

Appendix

POW calculation methods

INTRODUCTION

Principle of calculation methods

Reliability of calculated values

Fujita-Hansch π-method

πX = log Pow (PhX) – log Pow (PhH)

where PhX is an aromatic derivative and PhH the parent substance.

The π-method is primarily of interest for aromatic substances. π-values for a large number of substituents are available (4)(5).

Rekker method

where ai is the number of times a given fragment occurs in the molecule and fi is the log Pow increment of the fragment. The interaction terms can be expressed as an integral multiple of one single constant Cm (so-called ‘magic constant’). The fragment constants fi and Cm have been determined from a list of 1 054 experimental Pow values of 825 substances using multiple regression analysis (6)(8). The determination of the interaction terms is carried out according to set rules (6)(8)(9).

Hansch-Leo method

where fi is a fragment constant, Fj a correction term (factor), ai and bj the corresponding frequency of occurence. Lists of atomic and group fragmental values and of correction terms Fj were derived by trial and error from experimental Pow values. The correction terms have been divided into several different classes (1)(4). Sofware packages have been developed to take into account all the rules and correction terms (3).

COMBINED METHOD

Remarks:

LITERATURE ON CALCULATION METHODS

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A.25.   DISSOCIATION CONSTANTS IN WATER (TITRATION METHOD — SPECTROPHOTOMETRIC METHOD — CONDUCTOMETRIC METHOD)

INTRODUCTION

This test method is equivalent to OECD test guideline 112 (1981)

Prerequisites

Guidance information

Qualifying statements

Standard documents

This test method is based on methods given in the references listed in the section ‘Literature’ and on the Preliminary Draft Guidance for Premanufacture Notification EPA, August 18, 1978.

METHOD — INTRODUCTION, PURPOSE, SCOPE, RELEVANCE, APPLICATION AND LIMITS OF TEST

The dissociation of a substance in water is of importance in assessing its impact upon the environment. It governs the form of the substance which in turn determines its behaviour and transport. It may affect the adsorption of the chemical on soils and sediments and absorption into biological cells.

Definitions and units

Dissociation is the reversible splitting into two or more chemical species which may be ionic. The process is indicated generally by

RX ⇌ R ++ X –

and the concentration equilibrium constant governing the reaction is

For example, in the particular case where R is hydrogen (the substance is an acid), the constant is

or

Reference substances

The following reference substances need not be employed in all cases when investigating a new substance. They are provided primarily so that calibration of the method may be performed from time to time and to offer the chance to compare the results when another method is applied.

It would be useful to have a substance with several pKs as indic